Effect of processing and storage of brined white (Nabulsi) cheese on fat and cholesterol oxidation

Brined white (Nabulsi) cheese was studied for cholesterol oxidation and for oxidative and hydrolytic rancidities during cheese processing, during storage in closed transparent and light‐protected glass jars at room temperature for 3, 6 and 9 months and during storage on an open tray exposed to atmospheric air and light for 1, 2 and 3 weeks. The peroxide value (PV), free fatty acid (FFA) content and 7‐ketocholesterol level were determined. The cheese processing steps (curd formation, salting and boiling in brine) had no significant effect on PV, FFAs and 7‐ketocholesterol. However, the storage conditions had a significant effect (p ≤ 0.5) on these parameters. Peroxides were not detected or were very low in the freshly boiled cheese, while the FFA content was 2.9 g kg^?1. The PV and FFA content increased to approximately 5 meq kg^?1 and 11 g kg^?1 respectively after 9 months of storage in transparent or light‐protected jars. The 7‐ketocholesterol level was 1.2 µg g^?1 in the freshly boiled cheese and reached maximum values of 2.3 and 5.2 µg g^?1 after 9 months of storage in light‐protected and transparent jars respectively. Cheese samples displayed on an open tray showed a higher increase in PV, FFAs and 7‐ketocholesterol than samples stored in closed jars, reaching values of 6.1 meq kg^?1, 6.8 g kg^?1 and 8.8 µg g^?1 respectively after 3 weeks of storage. © 2002 Society of Chemical Industry     

Fatty acid composition and characteristics of Pentadesma butyracea fat extracted from ghana seeds

Recent interest in the development of the tallow tree (Pentadesma butyracea S) as an oil-tree crop has stimulated agronomic and chemical studies of the tree and the fat obtained from its seeds. Tallow fat extracted from local seeds has been analysed for its chemical and physical constants and fatty acid composition. These characteristics have been compared with those of the better known cocoa butter and shea butter. Dry tallow kernels, shea butter kernels and cocoa beans contained 50, 52.1 and 53.4% fat, respectively. Tallow fat and shea butter are similar in several of their characteristics, particularly slip point, saponification number, solidification point and fatty acid composition; but tallow fat has a much lower unsaponifiable matter content (1.5–1.8%) than shea butter (7.3–9.0%). Both are markedly different from cocoa butter and cocoa butter replacement fats in respect of their melting points and fatty acid composition. Cooling curves of 3:1, 1:1, and 1:3 mixtures of tallow fat and cocoa butter indicate poor compatibility between the two fats.     

Assessment of thermo‐oxidative rancidity in sunflower oil and fried potato chips stabilised with oleoresin sage (Salvia officinalis L.) and ascorbyl palmitate by altered triglycerides and electronic nose

Oleoresin sage (Salvia officinalis) (SAG) (200–1500 mg kg^?1), ascorbyl palmitate (AP) (100–300 mg kg^?1) and TBHQ (200 mg kg^?1) were assessed for delaying the thermo‐oxidation in sunflower oil (SO) during 18 h of frying (180 °C). Electronic nose compared the global aroma fingerprints of potato chips fried in oils. The chemical rancidity indices viz., fatty acids, total polar compounds (TPC), altered triglycerides (dimers, polymers, oxidised monomers, diglycerides), free fatty acids, conjugated dienes and induction periods were monitored along with physical indices viz., viscosity and colour. SO_SAG+AP (1309.62 + 270.71 mg kg^?1) outperformed SO_TBHQ by preserving polyunsaturated fatty acids (60.48% vs. 56.23%), retarding TPCs (28.16% vs. 29.91%), triglyceride dimers (90.24 vs. 95.82 mg g^?1) and polymers (25.40 vs. 26.98 mg g^?1) concomitantly extending the oil disposal time (basis 25% TPC) (15.9 vs. 14.7 h). The postfrying viscosity, colour values and global aroma fingerprints of fried chips indicate a close match between SO_SAG+AP and SO_TBHQ.     

Antioxidant effects of rosemary extracts on sunflower oil compared with synthetic antioxidants

The antioxidant activities of ethanol extracts of rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.) (RE) were tested in natural sunflower oil stored at 60 °C by measuring their peroxide values (POV), thiobarbituric acid‐reactive substances (TBARS), free fatty acid (FFA) content and p‐anisidine value (AnV) after regular intervals compared with synthetic antioxidants. After 3 weeks of storage at 60 °C, sunflower oil containing 200 mg kg^?1 rosemary extracts showed lower POVs (75.7 ± 0.47  meq kg^?1), thiobarbituric acid‐reactive substances (TBARS)(0.161 ± 0.002 μg mL^?1), FFA contents (0.45 ± 0.04 mg g^?1) and AnV (12.4 ± 0.02) than the control sample. Sunflower oil containing 200 ppm butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) and tert‐butylhydroquinone (TBHQ) showed POVs (204 ± 0.68, 159 ± 0.55, 20 ± 0.49 meq kg^?1), thiobarbituric acid‐reactive substances (TBARS) (0.171 ± 0.002, 0.184 ± 0.002, 0.069 ± 0.001 μg mL^?1), FFA contents (0.34 ± 0.03, 0.46 ± 0.03, 0.2 ± 0.01 mg g^?1) and AnV (14.7 ± 0.03, 16.5 ± 0.04, 6.77 ± 0.01), respectively, after 3 weeks of storage at 60 °C. These results illustrate that rosemary extracts exhibited very strong antioxidant activity, almost equal to that of synthetic antioxidants (BHA and BHT).     

Effects of Moisture and pH on Supercritical Fluid Extraction of Cocoa Butter

The effects of moisture content and alkali treatment on cocoa butter extraction using supercritical fluid were studied. Ground cocoa nibs were examined at moisture contents of 1.95 %, 3.91 %, 5.87 %, 9.79 % and 17.64 % and the pH of the cocoa liquor was maintained at 5.0–5.9, 6.8–7.2 and 7.5–7.9. Cocoa butter was successfully extracted, using supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO₂) for the moisture content study and SC-CO₂ with 25 % ethanol as a cosolvent for the pH-level alkali treatment study, at 35 MPa, 60 °C and 2 ml/min. The results showed that increases in moisture content and pH level significantly (p?<?0.05) increase the yield efficiency. A moisture content of 9.79 % and pH-alkali treatment at 7.5–7.9 produced the highest yield (60.36 % and 73.70 % at 20 and 18 h extraction time, respectively). Triglycerides (TG) and fatty acids (FAs) were similar to those found in cocoa butter obtained using the Soxhlet method. Saturated and short-chain TG and FA constituents were more soluble than unsaturated and long-chain constituents.     

Change in α‐tocopherol contents,lipid oxidation and fatty acid profile in eggs enriched with linolenic acid or very long‐chain ω3 polyunsaturated fatty acids after different processing methods

The influences of dietary supplementation with α‐tocopheryl acetate (α‐TA) and of processing (by hard‐boiling and scrambling) of eggs enriched with ω3 fatty acids, either very long‐chain ω3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (VLC ω3 PUFAs) or linolenic acid (LNA), on fatty acid composition, α‐tocopherol content and lipid oxidation (thiobarbituric acid (TBA) values) were studied. Four dietary treatments were formulated from a basal diet containing 40 g kg^?1 linseed oil (LO) or fish oil (FO) combined with either 0 or 100 mg α‐TA kg^?1 of feed. Eggs from LO treatments were enriched with LNA and those from FO treatments were rich in VLC ω3 PUFAs. Neither processing nor dietary supplementation with α‐TA modified greatly the fatty acid profile of eggs. Dietary supplementation with α‐TA increased the α‐tocopherol content of eggs (187.2 versus 407.9 µg g^?1 dry matter). Eggs from FO treatments showed lower α‐tocopherol content than those from LO treatments (273.5 versus 321.6 µg g^?1 dry matter), and processing of eggs enriched with VLC ω3 PUFA reduced the α‐tocopherol content by a significant 16%. Moreover, processing of eggs increased lipid oxidation two‐ to nine‐fold. Oxidation levels of hard‐boiled eggs were 30.4% higher than those of scrambled eggs. TBA values in hard‐boiled and scrambled eggs were significantly reduced when 100 mg α‐TA kg^?1 of feed supplemented the diet only in those eggs enriched with VLC ω3 PUFA (from FO treatments). Copyright © 2003 Society of Chemical Industry     

Optimisation of the Cooking Process of Sheanut Kernels (Vitellaria paradoxa Gaertn.) Using the Doehlert Experimental Design

The response surface method employing Doehlert’s experimental design was used to optimise the cooking of sheanuts to strike a balance between the advantages and disadvantages usually offered by the process. The independent factors investigated were cooking time, cooking temperature and nut size while the responses were moisture content of the kernels, amount of oil extracted, acid and peroxide values of the butter. Second order polynomial models were generated to describe the process for the responses studied. The validity of the models was tested and it was found that they could be used to explain respectively 83%, 99% and 95% of the variation of moisture content, acid value and peroxide value. The cooking process greatly reduced the free fatty acid values of the butter (<6%) but increased its peroxide value (up to 20 meq/kg). The cooking process was significantly influenced by all three independent factors investigated. The optimum conditions defined for the cooking process were: cooking time (95–120 min), cooking temperature (75–90 °C) and nut size (40–45 mm). These optimal conditions gave the following responses: moisture content 51.97% w.b., amount of oil extracted 47.47%, acid value (as FFA) 2.76% and peroxide value 3.87 meq/kg. The parameters of the cooking conditions could be set to appropriate values to give butter of either category 1, 2 or 3 in terms of acid and peroxide values.     

Bifurcaria bifurcata: a key macro‐alga as a source of bioactive compounds and functional ingredients

The aim of this work was to study the proximate composition and the bioactive profile of Bifurcaria bifurcata. It contains 73.31 ± 0.69% of moisture, 8.57 ± 0.11 g per 100 g dry weight (d.w.) of protein, 5.81 ± 0.14 g per 100 g d.w. of lipid content and 30.15 ± 0.00 g per 100 g d.w. of ash. The polyunsaturated fatty acids were the most abundant fatty acid (FA), accounting for 2426.56 mg per 100 g which represents 41.77% of the total FA. The methanolic fraction showed high quantity of polyphenols (220.01 ± 0.010 phloroglucinol equivalents g^?1 extract), DPPH radical reduction capacity (EC₅₀:58.82 μg mL^?1) and oxygen radical absorbent capacity (3151.35 ± 119.33 μmol Trolox equivalents g^?1 extract). The highest antimicrobial effect was observed against Pseudomonas aeruginosa (11.3 ± 1.5 mm) and Saccharomyces cerevisiae (IC₅₀:17.07 μg mL^?1) induced by methanolic and dichloromethane fractions, respectively. Dichloromethane fraction revealed the highest antitumor activity on Caco‐2 and HepG‐2 cells. Bifurcaria bifurcata can be a promising source of bioactive compounds and functional ingredients.     

Effects of glycerol,sorbitol, xylitol and fructose plasticisers on mechanical and moisture barrier properties of pullulan–alginate–carboxymethylcellulose blend films

The effects of glycerol, sorbitol, xylitol and fructose plasticisers on water sorption, mechanical properties, water vapour permeability (WVP) and microstructure of pullulan–alginate–carboxymethycellulose (PAC) blend films were investigated. At low plasticiser concentrations (below 7% w/w dry basis), antiplasticisation effect was observed, causing an increase in tensile strength (TS) but a decrease in the equilibrium moisture content. As glycerol concentration increased from 0% to 7%, TS increased from 68.1 to 69.6 MPa, whereas equilibrium moisture contents at 0.84 a_w decreased from 0.37 to 0.3 g H₂O g^?1 dry basis. At higher plasticiser concentrations (14–25% w/w), an opposite trend was observed on the PAC films, resulting in the reduction of TS and elevation of moisture content. Among the four plasticisers tested, the fructose‐plasticised films were the most brittle, showing the highest TS, but had the lowest elongation at break (EAB), WVP and equilibrium moisture content values than films plasticised with other polyols. On the other hand, glycerol resulted in the most flexible film structure, exhibiting opposite materials' properties as compared with the fructose‐plasticised films. For instance, at 25% (w/w) plasticiser concentration, EAB and WVP values of fructose‐plasticised films were 33.5% and 3.48 × 10^?6 g m Pa^?1 h^?1 m^?2, which were significantly lower than that of glycerol‐plasticised films (58.6% and 4.86 × 10^?6 g m Pa^?1 h^?1 m^?2, respectively). Scanning electron microscopy showed that the plasticised PCA films were less homogeneous and more porous than the unplasticised counterparts, indicating that plasticisers had an effect on the microstructural morphology of the film matrix.     

Antioxidative and antimicrobial activities of shrimp chitosan on gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata) during refrigerated storage

This study aims to determine the effects of chitosan obtained from Metapenaeus stebbingi shells on the shelf life of refrigerated gilthead sea bream. It was determined that 1% chitosan‐coated samples had the lowest thiobarbituric acid (TBA) (3.05 mg malondialdehyde (MDA) kg^?1) and free fatty acids (FFA) value (2.79% oleic acid), while the control group had the highest TBA (5.08 mg MDA kg^?1) and FFA value (6.13% oleic acid) on the 27th day of storage. In the last day of storage, TVB‐N was found higher in control group (25.62 mg 100 g^?1) than chitosan‐coated samples (14.57 mg 100 g^?1). Total viable count value of the control group exceeded maximum permissible limit on the 27th day of storage. However, it was lower than 7.0 log CFU/g in chitosan‐coated samples during the refrigerated storage. As a result of this study, it was determined that shelf life of refrigerated gilthead sea bream can be increased up to 27 days with chitosan.     

Effects of roasting and boiling on the chemical composition,amino acids and oil stability of safflower seeds

The objective of this study was to determine the effects of roasting and boiling on compositional and oil stability of safflower seeds. The moisture, carbohydrate and fibre contents decreased because of roasting and boiling treatments while fat and protein contents increased. The fatty acid compositions of treated samples changed slightly compared with control. The total amount of amino acids in control sample was 151.29, and this amount increased to 158.8 and 186.9 mg g^?1 N by roasting and boiling, respectively. The peroxide value of the oil increased because of roasting and boiling, and it reaches above the accepted value to consumer. Concentrations of major elements such as Na, K and Cu in raw safflower seeds were significantly (P < 0.05) higher than roasted and boiled seeds. The effects of roasting and boiling with regard to loss and retention of the nutrients differed significantly (P > 0.05), with only the roasting retaining more of the nutrients than boiling. The peak intensities of control oil using FTIR spectroscopy were changed in comparison with treated oils.     

Preparation,antioxidant activity and protective effect of coconut testa oil extraction on oxidative damage to human serum albumin

Extraction, physicochemical properties and fatty acid composition analysis of coconut testa oil (CTO), antioxidant activity and the protective effect on oxidative damage to human serum albumin (HSA) of coconut testa oil extract (CTOE) were investigated. Results showed that the optimal extract condition of CTO was B₃A₂C₂ (temperature of 60 °C, material‐to‐solvent of 1:4 g mL^?1 and extraction time of 3 h) with the maximum oil yield (76.83 ± 0.53%). The obtained CTO was nondrying oil with iodine value of 14.69 g per 100 g, and lauric acid was the main component of 42.28%. Hydrogen peroxide scavenging activity of CTOE can reach to 49.81% at 2.5 mg mL^?1, while antioxidant activity (AA) on the oxidation of linoleic acid dropped from 56.82% to 31.70% during the first 80 min. CTOE could prevent HSA from oxidative damage induced by hydrogen peroxide via inhibiting the formation of protein carbonyl and increase of hydroperoxides content effectively. Total phenolic content was 68 mg g^?1, and the epicatechin and catechin were 2.74 and 2.26 mg g^?1 in its phenolic compositions, respectively. These all suggested CTO and CTOE might be new worthy exploiting functional sources.     

Optimisation of spray drying process parameters for low‐fat honey‐based milk powder with antioxidant activity

The purpose of this study was to optimise process parameters to prepare spray‐dried honey‐based milk powder containing functional properties of honey. Experimental design with temperature (180 to 200 °C), honey concentration (5–15%) and feed flow rate (8–10 rpm) as independent variables was studied to investigate the effect on product responses. Results showed that increasing the temperature resulted in powder with lower moisture, bulk density, antioxidant activity, total phenolic contents, total flavonoid contents and higher water solubility index. Increasing feed flow rate resulted in higher moisture, bulk density, antioxidant activity, reduced water solubility index, total phenolic content and total flavonoid content, whereas increasing honey concentration resulted in increase in antioxidant activity, total phenolic content and total flavonoid content. The moisture content, bulk density, water solubility index, DPPH scavenging activity, total phenolic content and total flavonoid content were 3.27%, 0.44 g cc^?1, 96.67 g g^?1, 17.45%, 2.54 GAE g^?1 powder and 1.40 RE g^?1 powder, respectively.     

Nutritional Composition of Shea Products and Chemical Properties of Shea Butter: A Review

Increasing demand of shea products (kernels and butter) has led to the assessment of the state-of-the-art of these products. In this review, attention has been focused on macronutrients and micronutrients of pulp, kernels, and butter of shea tree and also the physicochemical properties of shea butter. Surveying the literature revealed that the pulp is rich in vitamin C (196.1 mg/100 g); consumption of 50 g covers 332% and 98% of the recommended daily intake (RDI) of children (4–8 years old) and pregnant women, respectively. The kernels contain a high level of fat (17.4–59.1 g/100 g dry weight). Fat extraction is mainly done by traditional methods that involve roasting and pressing of the kernels, churning the obtained liquid with water, boiling, sieving, and cooling. The fat (butter) is used in food preparation and medicinal and cosmetics industries. Its biochemical properties indicate some antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities. Large variations are observed in the reported values for the composition of shea products. Recommendations for future research are presented to improve the quality and the shelf-life of the butter. In addition, more attention should be given to the accuracy and precision in experimental analyses to obtain more reliable information about biological variation.     

The proximate composition and some minor constituents of poppy seeds

The proximate chemical composition of poppy seeds, along with minerals and water-soluble vitamins content was investigated. The compositions of the fatty acids and tocopherols of the extracted oil were also determined. The proximate analysis of poppy seeds showed the following composition: (440 g kg^?1), protein (211 g kg^?1), moisture (50 g kg^?1), ash (63 g kg^?1), crude fine (62 g kg^?1) and total carbohydrates (236 g kg^?1). Potassium and calcium were the predominant elements in the poppy seeds. Linoleic acid was the major unsaturated fatty acid (750 g kg^?1 total fatty acids) while palmitic acid was the main saturated one (86-4 g kg^?1). The amounts of α-, β- and δ-tocopherols found in poppy seed oil were 220 μg g^?1, 40 μg g^?1 and 20 μg g^?1 respectively. Among the water-soluble vitamins determined, pantothenic acid was found at the highest level followed by niacin and thiamin.     

Effect of partial replacement of sodium chloride with potassium chloride on the characteristics of Minas Padrão cheese

Partial replacement of NaCl by KCl (25% and 50%) in Minas Padrão cheese was investigated for the physicochemical characteristics, sensory evaluation, fatty acid profile, and texture parameters. Salt replacement did not affect the moisture content, protein, fat, ash, water activity, chloride, pH, and proteolysis. A significant reduction in sodium levels was observed, ranging from 369.12 mg 100 g⁻¹ to 210.05 mg 100 g⁻¹, while the control treatment (100% NaCl) presented 608.67 mg 100 g⁻¹. Proteolysis indexes increased throughout ripening. Hardness and chewiness increased, as a result of pH reduction and syneresis in cheese, which caused a decrease in moisture content. The fatty acid profile was affected by sodium reduction, with an increase in short chain, medium-chain, and polyunsaturated fatty acids. In relation to the acceptance test, no significant differences were observed for the cheese with a substitution of 25% sodium chloride with potassium chloride when compared with the control.     

Physicochemical traits and sensory quality of commercial butter produced in the Azores

In the volcanic islands of the Azores archipelago, pasture is available the entire year and affects the composition of bovine milk fat. The composition of cows' milk butter manufactured in this region was evaluated. All brands showed excellent microbiological and oxidative quality. The fatty acid profile range presented a low n-6/n-3 ratio (1.81–3.38), low atherogenic (2.86–3.11) and thrombogenicity (3.27–3.60) indices and reduced cholesterol content (136–143 mg 100 g⁻¹). In addition, Azorean butters have a high content of conjugated linoleic acid (0.44–0.64 mg 100 g⁻¹), β-carotene (0.12–0.17 mg 100 g⁻¹) and α-tocopherol (1.40–2.20 mg 100 g⁻¹). Sensory analysis revealed high scores for appearance, consistency and flavour of all brands. These results indicate that Azorean butters produced from cows’ milk based on grass-feeding have a potentially healthier fat content and a desirable flavour that, associated with its “natural image”, may be promoted for product differentiation.     

Effect of different ozone treatments on aflatoxin degradation and physicochemical properties of pistachios

This study evaluated the efficiency of ozone for the degradation of aflatoxins in pistachio kernels and ground pistachios. Pistachios were contaminated with known concentrations of aflatoxin (AF) B₁, B₂, G₁ and G₂. Pistachio samples were exposed to gaseous ozone in a chamber at 5.0, 7.0 and 9.0 mg L^?1 ozone concentrations for 140 and 420 min at 20 °C and 70% RH. Aflatoxin degradation was determined by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The efficiency of ozone for aflatoxin degradation in pistachios increased with increasing exposure time and ozone concentration. The results indicated that AFB₁ and total aflatoxins could be reduced by 23 and 24%, respectively, when pistachio kernels were ozonated at 9.0 mg L^?1 ozone concentration for 420 min. Only a 5% reduction in AFB₁ and total aflatoxin levels could be achieved for ground pistachios under the same conditions. No significant changes occurred in pH, color, moisture content and free fatty acid values of pistachio kernels and ground pistachios. Fatty acid compositions of pistachios did not change significantly after the ozonation treatments. No significant changes were found between sweetness, rancidity, flavor, appearance and overall palatability of ozonated and non‐ozonated pistachio kernels. Significant changes were observed in the organoleptic properties of ground pistachios, except rancidity, after 5.0 mg L^?1 ozone treatment for 140 min. Ozonation was found to be more effective for degrading aflatoxins in pistachio kernels than ground pistachios. Copyright © 2006 Society of Chemical Industry     

The influence of different plasticisers and fatty acids on functional properties of basil seed gum edible film

In this study, the influence of different concentrations of plasticisers and fatty acids on functional properties of basil seed gum (BSG) films was investigated. The results revealed that glycerol and sorbitol were effective plasticisers for BSG films. Glycerol‐plasticised films exhibited hydrophilic nature with high moisture content (27–49%) and water vapour permeability (4.2–6.5 × 10^?11 g Pa^?1 m^?1 s^?1), moisture uptake higher than 100%, solubility ranging 39–50% and moderate mechanical properties. The films containing sorbitol showed lower moisture content, moisture uptake and percentage elongation compared with glycerol‐plasticised samples. Presence of fatty acids promoted an increase in hydrophobicity of samples, characterised by lower moisture uptake, solubility, water vapour permeability and higher contact angles. Among investigated fatty acids, oleic acid efficiency on improving the characteristics of films was higher than saturated fatty acids (palmitic and stearic acid). Concluding, BSG films showed a substantial potential to be incorporated into food packaging applications, especially for those that require less hydrophilic films.     

The non-glyceride saponifiables of shea butter

Triterpene alcohols and sterols were found to be present in a commercial sample of shea butter (the seed fat of Butyrospermum parkii, Sapotaceae) as esters of both cinnamic and fatty acids. These non-glyceride saponifiables represented 6% by weight of the shea butter under study, whereas free triterpene alcohols and sterols accounted for only 1 % by weight. Cinnamic acid was found neither in the free form, nor esterified to glycerol. Saponification of the non-glyceride saponifiables yielded the triterpene alcohols α-amyrin, butyrospermol, lupeol, β-amyrin and germanicol as major components. Other alcohols identified were parked, 24-methylenelanost-9(11)-en-3-ol, dammaradienol, 24-methylenedammarenol and the two sterols α-spinasterol and Δ⁷-stigmastenol. Esterified to these alcohols were cinnamic (trans and cis), palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic and arachidic acids. The fatty acid composition of the non-glyceride saponifiables is different from that of the glycerides. No selectivity was observed in the esterification of these fatty acids by triterpene alcohols and sterols. Investigation of the products from acid catalysed transmethylation has led to two new experimental findings: (i) the difference in reaction rate of fatty acid and cinnamic acid esters and (ii) the formation of methoxylated artifacts from alcohols having unsaturation, in the C¹⁷ side chain, between C²⁴ and C²⁵ by the addition of methanol across the double bond. Analysis of the lipids extracted from shea kernels confirmed that the cinnamic acid esters were only present as non-glyceride saponifiables.