Consequences of influence tactics used with subordinates, peers, and the boss.

A field study was conducted to discover how a manager's use of 9 different influence tactics is related to target task commitment and the manager's effectiveness. The variables were measured with a questionnaire filled out by subordinates, peers, and the boss of each manager. The most effective tactics were rational persuasion, inspirational appeal, and consultation; the least effective tactics were pressure, coalition, and legitimating. Ingratiation and exchange were moderately effective for influencing subordinates and peers but were not effective for influencing superiors. Inspirational appeal, ingratiation, and pressure were used most in a downward direction; personal appeal, exchange, and legitimating were used most in a lateral direction; coalitions were used most in lateral and upward directions; and rational persuasion was used most in an upward direction. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Impact of ingratiation on judgments and evaluations: A meta-analytic investigation.

A computer search was conducted to examine empirical research on the relationship between various ingratiation tactics and the judgments and evaluations of targets and observers. The data revealed a small positive effect for ingratiation on performance evaluations and a significantly stronger positive effect for ingratiation on judgments of interpersonal attraction (i.e., liking). However, these effects were qualified by a number of categorical and continuous moderator variables, including the specific ingratiation tactic used, the perceived transparency of the ingratiation, the direction of the influence attempt ( upward, downward, or lateral ), whether perceivers were targets of the influence attempt or simply observed the ingratiation, the gender of the perceiver, and the setting in which the data were collected. The implications of these findings for future research on the impact of various forms of ingratiation are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Influence tactics in psychotherapy.

Examined the process of psychotherapy within the context of social power theory. Therapist influence acts were classified in terms of the goals or reasons why therapists exercised influence and the strength of the influence attempt. The analysis was based on 22 tapes of psychotherapy sessions, provided by 5 female and 6 male therapists. Each therapist provided a tape of 1 male and 1 female client. Findings indicate that therapists were consistent in their use of tactics from one client to another. Male therapists, compared with female therapists, used significantly more influence tactics and interrupted their clients significantly more often. Therapists of both genders used significantly more passive forms of influence earlier in the session and more active forms later. Therapists of both genders told female clients what to do significantly more often than they did male clients, although they significantly more often explained thoughts, feelings, and behaviors to male clients than to female clients. Therapists used stronger influence attempts—those judged as demanding a response from the client—significantly more frequently with female clients than with male clients. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Interfirm use of power.

Attempted to identify the tactics of influence used by organizations in their attempts to influence other organizations. The experiment also examined conditions under which organizations used various tactics of influence. 67 graduate business students enrolled in evening courses described an incident in which their organization attempted to get its ways with another organization. The reason for attempting to exercise influence and the tactics of influence used were tabulated. 20 tactics were identified. It was found that strong and controlling tactics of influence were used significantly more often when (a) the target company resisted being influenced, (b) the target firm was less powerful than the influencing firm, and (c) the influencing firm was reacting to some initial action of the target firm rather than attempting to change the behavior of the target firm. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The language of demand/withdraw: Verbal and vocal expression in dyadic interactions.

Associations between vocally expressed emotional arousal, influence tactics, and demand/withdraw behavior were examined in a treatment-seeking sample of 130 seriously and stably distressed, married, heterosexual couples and in a community sample (N = 38) of 18 married heterosexual and 20 dating heterosexual couples. Fundamental frequency was used to measure emotional arousal, and computational linguistics were used to measure influence tactics. Higher levels of demand/withdraw behavior were associated with greater use of manipulative and controlling influence tactics, higher levels of emotional arousal, and less frequent use of cooperative and compromising influence tactics. Overall, demanders tended to express more arousal and to use more influence tactics than withdrawers. Both influence tactics and emotional arousal were uniquely associated with demand/withdraw behavior. Implications of results are discussed for refining theories of demand/withdraw interaction. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex, power, and influence tactics in intimate relationships.

Examined the influence of sex, sex-role orientation, structural power, and interpersonal dependence on the use of influence tactics in 75 homosexual couples, 62 lesbian couples, and 98 heterosexual couples. Ss rated the frequency of 24 influence tactics on a 9-point scale, from which 6 dimensions of influence tactics were identified: manipulation, supplication, bullying, autocracy, disengagement, and bargaining. Several patterns of the effect of interpersonal power on influence tactics were found: Positions of weakness increased the use of supplication and manipulation, both "weak" strategies. Positions of strength somewhat increased the likelihood of bullying and the use of autocratic tactics, both "strong" strategies. Patterns of bargaining and the use of disengagement were more complex and varied across couple types. Both sex and sex-role orientation had consistent effects on influence dynamics, but these effects were limited primarily to the use of weak tactics. These effects of sex do not appear to be mediated either by interpersonal dependence or by structural power. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Antecedents of influence outcomes.

Influence incidents described either by agents or targets were coded for the presence of 9 influence tactics, and the outcome was coded in terms of commitment, compliance, or resistance. Agent power and content factors for an incident were measured with a short questionnaire. This study is the first to show that influence tactics, agent power, and content factors independently affect influence outcomes. Target commitment was more likely when the request was important and enjoyable to implement, and the agent had strong referent power, used consultation, inspirational appeals, or a strong form of rational persuasion, and did not use pressure. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Socialization Tactics, Employee Proactivity, and Person-Organization Fit.

This study examined the linkage between organizational socialization tactics and person-organization (P-O) fit and examined the moderating influence of employees' proactivity behaviors. Results from a sample of 279 employee-supervisor pairs from 7 organizations in South Korea revealed a positive relationship between institutionalized socialization tactics and P-O fit perceptions. However, the association between firms' socialization tactics and P-O fit was facilitated or negated by several proactive behaviors that employees used to gain control over their environment. For example, employees' positive framing harmonized with institutional tactics to create higher P-O fit, whereas employees who proactively developed strong relationships with their supervisors essentially replaced institutionalized socialization tactics. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Teachers' and Pupils' Behavior in Large and Small Classes: A Systematic Observation Study of Pupils Aged 10 and 11 Years.

The authors examined class size effects on teacher-pupil interactions, pupil engagement, and pupil-pupil interaction. They extended previous research by recognizing the hierarchical nature of observation data and the possible influence of other variables. The study used a time sampling method involving 257 children (aged 10-11 years) in 16 small (25 or under) and 26 large (31 and over) classes. In small classes, there were more individualized task-related contacts between teacher and pupils and a more active role for pupils. These results confirmed those from earlier research on children aged 4 and 5 years. Against expectation, class size did not affect pupil on-task behavior or peer interaction. There was a moderating role for school subject and a beneficial effect of teaching assistants. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The impact of political skill on impression management effectiveness.

In this study, the authors investigated the effect of an individual's political skill on the relationships between 5 different impression management tactics (intimidation, exemplification, ingratiation, selfpromotion, and supplication) and supervisor evaluations of performance. To test these relationships, the authors used a matched sample of 173 supervisor-subordinate dyads who worked full time in a state agency. Findings showed that individuals who used high levels of any of the tactics and who were politically skilled achieved more desirable supervisor ratings than did those who used the tactics but were not politically skilled. Opposite results were found when impression management usage was low. That is, individuals who were not politically skilled created a more desirable image in their supervisors' eyes than did their politically skilled counterparts when they did not use these tactics. Practical and research implications for the findings as well as directions for future research are offered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Quotes, questions, and standards for historical research.

Comments on M. Snyderman and R. J. Herrnstein's (see record 1984-09428-001) historical research on the influence of intelligence test data on the passage of the 1924 Immigration Act. The present author cites quotations that are oppositional to Snyderman and Herrnstein's argument, which were ignored in their article. It is argued that Snyderman and Herrnstein's article is flawed by their failure to consider the amount of highly relevant evidence already published and by their failure to engage—not to accept—earlier interpretations of this material. (4 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Personality moderators of the relationship between abusive supervision and subordinates' resistance.

Results of a study using data collected at 2 points in time, separated by 6 months, suggested that subordinates resisted their supervisors' downward influence tactics with greater frequency when their supervisors were more abusive and that subordinates' personality moderated the effects of abusive supervision. The relationship between abusive supervision and subordinates' dysfunctional resistance was stronger among subordinates who were lower in conscientiousness than among subordinates who were higher in conscientiousness, but this effect emerged only for subordinates who were also lower in agreeableness. The relationship between abusive supervision and subordinates' constructive resistance was stronger among subordinates who were higher in conscientiousness than among subordinates who were lower in conscientiousness. The study's implications for theory and research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Toward a theory of strategic self-presentation in counseling and psychotherapy.

Introduces an impression-management perspective of the therapeutic process. On the basis of the reciprocal view of social influence, a taxonomy is proposed for classifying certain kinds of client self-presentations as defensive and assertive strategies to influence counselors' impressions and behaviors. A defensive or protective strategy is one in which the client seeks to avoid blame or disapproval by the counselor, whereas an assertive strategy is characterized by attempts to gain approval, credit, or social power in the relationship. Four assertive strategies (ingratiation, supplication, self-promotion, and intimidation) and a defensive strategy ("facework") are described, along with their respective short-term tactics. The theoretical relevance of these strategies is described, including the therapeutic contexts that are likely to elicit each class of self-presentation and potential counselor reactions and interventions. 10 propositions are detailed as directions for future research, and earlier literature on the influence of clients' behaviors on counselors' impressions is reviewed from an impression-management perspective. (78 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The moderating role of subordinate political skill on supervisors' impressions of subordinate ingratiation and ratings of subordinate interpersonal facilitation.

Nearly 2 decades ago, social influence theorists called for a new stream of research that would investigate why and how influence tactics are effective. The present study proposed that political skill affects the style of execution of influence attempts. It utilized balance theory to explain the moderating effect of employee political skill on the relationships between self- and supervisor-reported ingratiation. Additionally, supervisor reports of subordinate ingratiation were hypothesized to be negatively related to supervisor ratings of subordinate interpersonal facilitation. Results from a combined sample of 2 retail service organizations provided evidence that subordinates with high political skill were less likely than those low in political skill to have their demonstrated ingratiation behavior perceived by targets as a manipulative influence attempt. Also, when subordinates were perceived by their supervisors to engage in more ingratiation behavior, the subordinates were rated lower on interpersonal facilitation. Implications of these findings, limitations, and future research directions are provided. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Torque, hemispheric dominance, and psychosocial adjustment.

The relationships between torque (drawing of circles in a clockwise direction), 2 measures of hemispheric dominance, and measures of anxiety and social competency were examined in 225 unselected male college students. Torque occurred for 33.8% of the sample and was associated with handedness and conjugate lateral eye movement tendencies in a manner consistent with T. H. Blau's (see record 1978-29447-001) mixed cerebral dominance theory of the effect. Eye movement data from torque Ss were consistent with those reported for hospitalized schizophrenics. Multiple ANOVA conducted on the adjustment measures did not reveal significant differences associated with torque, alone or in interaction with S handedness or experimenter sex. Torque, a behavioral indicator of peculiarities in hemispheric functioning, is a potentially valuable tool for schizophrenia research. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Affective responses, cognitive appraisals, and conflict tactics in late adolescent romantic relationships: Associations with attachment orientations.

Although research has linked late adolescent attachment difficulties with broad problems in romantic relationships, less work has focused on how these difficulties relate to precise problems in these relationships. In the current study, the authors examined associations between attachment orientations and coping with conflict in romantic relationships in a sample of 357 college students by developing a path analytic model. Adolescents with more-insecure attachment orientations were predicted to report more negative affect during disagreements, less confidence in coping during arguments, and less optimal conflict tactics (e.g., more conflict escalation) than youth with more-secure representations. The predictions imbedded within the model were generally supported. Although more-avoidant and more-ambivalent adolescents reported less optimal conflict tactics than did more-secure adolescents, individual differences in the attachment process predicted differential affective-cognitive responses during these disputes. This study has implications for attachment research and interventions with adolescents. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of specificity and position of written instructional objectives on learning from lecture.

Investigated the effects of specificity and position of written instructional objectives on learning from an audiotaped lecture using material from E. Z. Rothkopf and R. Kaplan (see record 1973-07952-001). Undergraduates (N = 160) received either specific or general objectives before or after the 4 sections of the lecture. A control group received no objectives. Vocabulary items used throughout the experiment served as the covariate in analysis. Results indicating a departure from previous findings on the use of objectives with written text show that the before position increased intentional learning more than the after position. Incidental learning was significantly higher than intentional learning for treatment groups combined and particularly for the after groups. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Efficacy of Trust-Building Tactics in Construction Mediation

Distrust hinders disputing parties and mediators from achieving mediation success. Mediators therefore often use different trust-building tactics to generate some degree of trust in themselves and in the mediation process. This paper reports a study that identified the trust-building tactics used by construction mediators and examined the efficacy of these tactics with respect to their outcomes. Three study stages were designed. With reference to the mediation model of Sloan (1998), trust-building tactics and outcomes were first identified in Stage I. Next, the data were collected from accredited mediators with a questionnaire survey in Stage II. The collected data were then validated via reliability assessments in Stage III. With the use of multiple regression analyses, the efficacy of the trust-building tactics was examined by relating these tactics to their outcomes. The findings of this study suggest that the trust-building tactics used in Step 4 (i.e., explore interests) of Sloan’s (1998) mediation model are influential in developing trust among disputing parties and that they can also act as a time-saving tool in the mediation process. Furthermore, it was found that mediators can earn trust by adopting the trust-building tactics used in Step 3 (i.e., issues and trust) of Sloan’s (1998) model. These tactics can also serve to improve the relationships between the disputing parties. The results show that the trust-building tactics used in the final step (i.e., solutions) of Sloan’s (1998) model seem to have low efficacy in developing trust among disputing parties.     

The use of impression management tactics in structured interviews: A function of question type?

This study investigated impression management tactic use during structured interviews containing both experience-based and situational questions. Specifically, the authors examined whether applicants' use of impression management tactics depended on question type. Results from 119 structured interviews indicated that almost all of the applicants used some form of impression management. Significantly more assertive than defensive impression management tactics were used, and among assertive tactics, applicants tended to use self-promotion rather than ingratiation. However, different question types prompted the use of different impression management tactics. Ingratiation tactics were used significantly more when applicants answered situational questions, whereas self-promotion tactics were used significantly more when applicants answered experience-based questions. Furthermore, the use of self-promotion and ingratiation tactics was positively related to interviewer evaluations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)