The effect of glycidyl methacrylate treatment of empty fruit bunch (EFB) on the properties of ultra‐violet radiation cured EFB‐unsaturated polyester composite

In this study, biofiber composites cured by ultra‐violet, were produced using pulp made from empty fruit bunch (EFB) as the reinforcing agent and unsaturated polyester as the matrix. The conversion of EFB fibers into pulp was carried out using organosolv pulping process. The EFB pulp was then chemically treated with glycidyl methacrylate (GMA) to different percentage of weight percent gain and the composites were made with different percentages of pulp loading. Results showed that the Kappa number of EFB decreased as the NaOH concentration in organosolv pulping increased. Composites which were made from GMA‐treated EFB showed better mechanical properties (tensile, flexural, and impact strength) than those of the unmodified. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy showed peaks that proved the occurrence of grafting between GMA and OH from EFB pulp. Scanning electron microscope analysis showed the evidence of the enhancement of the compatibility between EFB and matrix. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2010     

A Preliminary Study on Ultraviolet Radiation–Cured Biofiber Composites from Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunch

Biofiber composites, cured by ultraviolet (UV) radiation were produced using pulp made from empty fruit bunch (EFB) as the reinforcing agent and unsaturated polyester as the matrix. The EFB fibers were treated with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solutions. The kappa number of the EFB decreased as the NaOH concentration increased. The flexural and tensile strength of the composites made from 22% NaOH-treated EFB increased as the percentage of EFB increased. Composites with 28% NaOH treated EFB had lower strength as the percentage of EFB increased. Generally, those with EFB fibers treated with 22% 15 NaOH displayed higher flexural, tensile, and impact strength and tensile modulus than those with 28% NaOH-treated fibers. No significant difference was observed for both types of composite with respect to flexural modulus and elongation at break.     

The water retention values of never-dried alkali-treated celluloses

The extent of swelling of refined and unrefined cotton linter, viscose pulp and paper pulp treated with various concentrations of NaOH from 4 to 20% at 20°C, then washed with water and never dried was measured in terms of the water retention values (WRV). The treatment of unrefined fibers with alkali resulted in increase in WRV; the only exception was viscose pulp treated with 12 and 14% NaOH. Cotton pulp refined with 5% NaOH showed an increase in the swelling ability in water which increased with the concentration of alkali treatment, whereas for viscose and paper pulps the amount of water retained increased with alkali concentration up to 12% and 14% NaOH, respectively, then decreased with further increase in alkali concentration. For cotton and viscose pulps refined with 20% NaOH, the alkali treatment increased the affinity of fibers to water up to alkali concentrations of 16% and 12% NaOH, respectively,′ then the WRV became more or less stable after treatment with higher concentrations of NaOH. On the other hand, the paper pulp refined with 20% NaOH then treated with alkali concentrations from 10 to 20% showed decreased WRV.     

Extraction and Characterization of Hemicelluloses and Cellulose from Oil Palm Trunk and Empty Fruit Bunch Fibres

Abstract

The cell walls of oil palm trunk fibre and empty fruit bunch (EFB) fibre were initially extracted with 5% NaOH at boiling for 2 h, which removed 17.3% and 15.2% hemicelluloses, respectively. Further extraction of the delignified palm trunk and EFB fibre was conducted with 10% NaOH at 20°C for 16 h and 24% KOH-2% H₃BO₃ at 20°C for 2 h. This resulted in the release of 11.9%, 13.5%, 12.7% and 14.9% residual hemicelluloses, respectively. The cellulose content, isolated by 24% KOH-2% H₃BO₃ from the two fibre samples, was found to be 41.3-41.7%, most of which was relatively free of associated lignin and hemicelluloses. The hemicelluloses, extracted with 5% NaOH from the lignified palm trunk fibre and EFB fibre, contained relatively high amounts of xylose, and minor arabinose and rhamnose than the hemicelluloses, extracted with 10% NaOH and 24% KOH-2% H₃BO₃ from the delignified fibres. While the hemicelluloses, extracted with 10% NaOH and 24% KOH-2% H₃BO₃ from the delignified palm trunk and EFB fibre, contained slightly more galactose, glucose, and mannose than the hemicelluloses, extracted with 5% NaOH from the lignified fibres. Further studies implied that the hemicelluloses, extracted with 5% NaOH from the lignified fibres, were more linear and acidic and had a large molecular size (weight-average, 17,400-22,900), together with comparatively high associated lignins (12.0-15.7%). Which were found to be linked to hemicelluloses mainly via syringyl unit. On the other hand, the hemicelluloses, extracted with 10% NaOH and 24% KOH-2% H₃BO₃ from the delignified fibres, were more branched but less acidic and had a comparatively small molecular size (weight-average, 6,600-10,800), together with trace amounts of associated lignin (0.3-1.1%). The hemicelluloses in the cell walls of palm EFB had a higher degree of polymerizaton than the hemicelluloses in the cell walls of palm trunk fibre as indicated by the molecular-average weights, ranging from 7,200 to 22,900, and from 6,600 to 17,400, respectively.     

Fractional Isolation and Structural Characterization of Lignins from Oil Palm Trunk and Empty Fruit Bunch Fibers

Abstract

The lignins from dewaxed oil palm trunk and empty fruit bunch (EFB) fibers were fractionated into 95% ethanol soluble, cold and hot water soluble, and 1% NaOH soluble lignins, respectively. The chemical and structural composition of the lignin preparations was determined by using UV, GPC, FT-IR, ¹³C-NMR spectroscopy and nitrobenzene oxidation. The alkali soluble and 95% ethanol soluble lignin fractions were found to contain low amounts of chemically linked polysaccharides, 2.9-3.9% and 7.5-8.0%, respectively, while the water soluble lignin fractions showed significant amounts of bound polysaccharides (16.2-23.3%). All of the lignin fractions contained a high proportion of non-condensed syringyl units, together with small amounts of non-condensed guaiacyl and fewer p-hydroxyphenyl units. The lignin from oil palm EFB fiber contained a significant amount of esterified p-hydroxybenzoic acid and a minor quantity of esterified glucuronic acid. Trace of ferulic acids was both esterified and etherified to lignin side chains in the EFB fiber cell walls.     

Kinetics of oil palm empty fruit bunch phenolysis in the presence of sulfuric acid as a catalyst

Oil palm empty fruit bunch (EFB) was successfully phenolyzed in the presence of sulfuric acid as a catalyst at different temperatures, reaction times, and percentage of catalyst used. Sulfuric acid was used as catalyst (5 and 8%) at the reacting temperature of 110–150°C with various reaction times. The kinetics parameters along with the weight of reacted EFB and phenol were calculated using the second‐ and third‐order reaction kinetics models. The weight of the reacted EFB in phenol shows that about 97% of EFB was liquefied during the reaction. However, only 70% of phenol was reacted with EFB. The kinetic studies showed that the EFB phenolysis in the presence of sulfuric acid followed a bimolecular type of the second‐order reaction. The activation energy calculated from the Arrhenius equation was 50.7 and 18.06 kJ/mol when the catalyst concentration was 5 and 8%, respectively. It can be depicted that the activation energy decreased as the catalyst increased. The reaction enthalpy showed that the liquefaction of EFB in phenol had dominantly followed the endothermic reaction. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2007     

Effect of Fiber Esterification on Fundamental Properties of Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunch Fiber/Poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) Biocomposites

A new class of biocomposites based on oil palm empty fruit bunch fiber and poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT), which is a biodegradable aliphatic aromatic co-polyester, were prepared using melt blending technique. The composites were prepared at various fiber contents of 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 wt% and characterized. Chemical treatment of oil palm empty fruit bunch (EFB) fiber was successfully done by grafting succinic anhydride (SAH) onto the EFB fiber surface, and the modified fibers were obtained in two levels of grafting (low and high weight percentage gain, WPG) after 5 and 6 h of grafting. The FTIR characterization showed evidence of successful fiber esterification. The results showed that 40 wt% of fiber loading improved the tensile properties of the biocomposite. The effects of EFB fiber chemical treatments and various organic initiators content on mechanical and thermal properties and water absorption of PBAT/EFB 60/40 wt% biocomposites were also examined. The SAH-g-EFB fiber at low WPG in presence of 1 wt% of dicumyl peroxide (DCP) initiator was found to significantly enhance the tensile and flexural properties as well as water resistance of biocomposite (up to 24%) compared with those of untreated fiber reinforced composites. The thermal behavior of the composites was evaluated from thermogravimetric analysis (TGA)/differential thermogravimetric (DTG) thermograms. It was observed that, the chemical treatment has marginally improved the biocomposites' thermal stability in presence of 1 wt% of dicumyl peroxide at the low WPG level of grafting. The improved fiber-matrix surface enhancement in the chemically treated biocomposite was confirmed by SEM analysis of the tensile fractured specimens.     

Improving supercritical water gasification of sludge by oil palm empty fruit bunch addition: Promotion of syngas production and heavy metal stabilization

The co-gasification of sewage sludge and palm oil empty fruit bunch (EFB) in supercritical water (SCW) was conducted at 400℃ with a pressure of over 25 MPa. This study aimed to investigate the influence of EFB addition on the syngas production and its composition. The heavy metal distribution and the leaching potential of the solid residue were also assessed. The results showed that syngas yield significantly increased with the addition of EFB into the feedstock. The cold gas efficiency (CGE) and carbon efficiency (CE) of co-gasification were higher than those of individual gasification. The actual syngas production from co-gasification of sludge and EFB was 45% higher than the theoretical total volume. The results indicated that the addition of EFB to sludge had the synergetic promotion effect on syngas production from sludge and EFB in supercritical water. This enhancement might be due to the dissolution of alkali metals from EFB and the adjustment of organic ratio. In addition, higher percentage of heavy metals were deposited and stabilized in the solid residue after SCWG. The leaching concentration of heavy metals from the solid residues was decreased to a level below the standard limit which enables it to be safely disposed of in landfill. In conclusion, the EFB addition has been proved to promote syngas production, as well as, stabilize the heavy metal in solid residues during co-SCWG.     

MgO替代NaOH的杨木PRC-APMP过氧化氢漂白

针对NaOH作为碱源的预处理盘磨化学处理碱性过氧化氢机械浆(PRC-APMP)漂白过程中存在的一些问题,考察了使用MgO在二段化学预浸段和高浓停留段以不同比例替代NaOH进行漂白后对浆张白度、抗张指数以及漂后废液中化学需氧量(CODCr)含量的影响。实验结果表明:在杨木PRC-APMP过氧化氢漂白过程中采用不同比例的MgO替代NaOH,漂后的浆张白度与未替代相比变化不大;抗张指数随替代比例的增加呈下降趋势;二段化学预浸段和高浓停留段废液中CODCr含量随MgO替代NaOH比例的增加呈下降趋势。     

聚氨酯海绵表面改性对Ti2AlN多孔陶瓷挂浆量的影响

利用有机泡沫浸渍法制备Ti2AlN多孔陶瓷,研究了聚氨酯海绵表面改性对陶瓷挂浆量的影响。通过对不同浓度的NaOH预处理后的海绵增重、坯体堵孔率分析表明,浓度为15%的NaOH对聚氨酯海绵的挂浆量最好;扫描电镜研究发现,聚氨酯海绵用15%NaOH溶液浸泡4h之后,再用羧甲基纤维素(CMC)预处理24h,海绵挂浆效果最佳。     

Tensile and Impact Properties of Thermoplastic Natural Rubber Reinforced Short Glass Fiber and Empty Fruit Bunch Hybrid Composites

Thermoplastic natural rubber (TPNR) hybrid composite with short glass fiber (GF) and empty fruit bunch (EFB) fiber were prepared via the melt blending method using an internal mixer type Thermo Haake 600p. The TPNR were prepared from natural rubber (NR), liquid natural rubber (LNR) and polypropylene (PP) thermoplastic, with a ratio of 20:10:70. The hybrid composites were prepared at various ratios of GF/EFB with 20% volume fraction. Premixture was performed before the material was discharged into the machine. The study also focused on the effect of fiber (glass and EFB) treatment using silane and maleic anhydride grafted polypropylene (MAgPP) as a coupling agent. In general, composite that contains 10% EFB/10% glass fiber gave an optimum tensile and impact strength for treated and untreated hybrid composites. Tensile properties increase with addition of a coupling agent because of the existence of adherence as shown in the scanning electron microscopy (SEM) micrograph. Further addition of EFB exceeding 10% reduced the Young's modulus and impact strength. However, the hardness increases with the addition of EFB fiber for the untreated composite and decreases for the treated composite.     

Effects of ten year application of empty fruit bunches in an oil palm plantation on soil chemical properties

The oil palm empty fruit bunches (EFB), a major waste product of the palm oil mills, were earlier incinerated at the mills and had contributed to air quality problems in Malaysia. This lead to the introduction of the Malaysian Environmental Air Quality Regulation in 1978 which prompted mills to look for alternative management methods in disposal of the EFB. A convenient method is applying the EFB to the oil palm field near the mill for nutrient cycling. A study was conducted to investigate the effects of 10 years of EFB yearly application in an oil palm plantation, as a source of nutrients, on the chemical properties of a well-drained, highly weathered acidic soil, classified as Typic Kandiudult. The experimental plots receiving 3 treatments, i.e. chemical fertilization, without EFB application (CHEM)), application of 150 kg EFB palm⁻¹ year⁻¹ (EFB150) and application of 300 kg EFB palm⁻¹ year⁻¹ (EFB300) with four replications, from 1983 to 1992. The EFB was applied in heaps in the middle of every 4 palms. The cumulative addition of EFB had increased the soil pH by two units with application of EFB300 and a one unit increase with EFB150 in the 0–60 cm soil layer, compared to CHEM. The application of EFB even at the lower rate decreased significantly exchangeable Al contents and the cation exchange capacity increased up to 60 cm soil depth. Overall increases in exchangeable bases were also observed in soils treated with EFB. The increase was more evident in EFB300 compared to EFB150. Organic C in the topsoil increased from 1.49 to 2.50% and 2.73% in EFB150 and EFB300, respectively. There was also an increase in total nitrogen with EFB application but only in the topsoil. An overall analysis of the yield response in the 10 year-period shows that EFB300 resulted in higher fresh fruit bunch (FFB) yield than EFB150 and CHEM while the yield of EFB150 was not significantly different from CHEM. This study showed that it is beneficial to dispose the EFB by applying them in the oil palm fields around the mills.     

Quality Changes of Superheated Steam–Dried Fibers from Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunches

Conventional drying of the fibers from oil palm empty fruit bunches (EFB) using flue gas from diesel burners frequently causes browning and dust explosion. Replacing the drying medium with superheated steam is expected to improve the quality of EFB fibers as well as improve the safety of the dryer operation. In this study, the effects of steam temperature and steam velocity on the quality of steam–dried EFB fibers was investigated. The drying experiment was carried out at atmospheric pressure with steam superficial velocity in the range of 0.3 to 0.49 m s^?1 and temperature in the range of 135 to 200°C. Three quality parameters of the EFB fibers, the color, strength, and microstructure, were used to assess the changes in EFB fiber quality as a result of superheated steam drying. The color of the EFB fiber was either improved or not significantly degraded. The strength of the superheated steam–dried EFB fibers was higher than that of undried and hot air–dried EFB fibers. The microstructure of fresh undried EFB fibers as seen by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) showed the presence of round silica particles of 10–20 µm in diameter all over the EFB fiber strand, which complicates pulping and bleaching. Superheated steam drying successfully removed the silica particles from the EFB fibers at temperatures of at least 200°C and a velocity of steam of at most 0.49 m s^?1, which is better than hammering, which can only remove 88% of the silica particles. The high temperature of the superheated steam loosened the silica particles from their craters. The EFB fibers cracked and split at steam velocities at or above 0.49 m s^?1 and high superheated steam temperatures at or above 200°C and as a consequence became weaker at these conditions. The removal of silica particles by superheated steam drying makes the EFB fiber amenable to pulping and bleaching. Superheated steam drying is therefore found to improve the overall quality of EFB fibers compared to hot air drying.     

废报纸脱墨浆甲脒亚磺酸单段漂白工艺研究

主要研究废报纸脱墨浆甲脒亚磺酸(FAS)单段漂白工艺及影响因素,探讨了FAS用量、NaOH用量、温度、时间对纸浆白度的影响。结果表明,废报纸脱墨浆FAS单段漂白的适宜工艺条件为:FAS用量1.4%(对绝干浆),NaOH用量0.7%(对绝干浆),浆浓10%,漂白温度70℃,时间40 min,在此条件下漂后浆白度可达到59%(ISO)。     

Co-gasification characteristics of palm oil by-products and coals for syngas production

Large amounts of empty fruit bunches (EFB) are generated annually during the palm oil manufacturing process; however, they are still treated as waste. In this study, gasification experiments were conducted using EFB in a fluidized bed reactor (throughput=1 kg/hr) at an experimental temperature range of 700 to 1,000 oC to assess the use of EFB as a renewable energy resource. To overcome the issues of an unstable EFB supply, co-gasification experiments using EFB with coal were conducted. The resulting syngas yield was approximately 70 vol%, similar to that from EFB gasification. The heating value of syngas was a magnitude of three-times higher than that of EFB gasification. However, the dry gas yield and cold gas efficiency were lower than those of EFB gasification. A coal mixing rate of 20 wt% and 0.6 of ER would be appropriate conditions for continuous production of stable syngas.     

POLYSTYRENE-BENZOYLATED EFB REINFORCED COMPOSITES

Reinforced thermoplastics generally are produced by incorporation of reinforcement agents or fillers into thermoplastic resins. The utilization of lignocellulosic material as filler with reinforcement in polymer matrix has received much interest due to its lower price and other properties. A composite of polystyrene reinforced with oil palm empty fruit bunches (EFB) and chemically treated EFB with benzoyl chloride (EFB-benzoylated) as a function of loading and fiber surface modification were prepared. The chemically treated fibers were analyzed with FT-IR to observe the extent of chemical reaction with EFB fiber. The sharp peak at 710 cm^?1 appeared on the spectra, which indicated that the mono-substituted benzene ring has taken place. The strong peak at 1720 cm^?1 has indicated the presence of ester group treated fiber. The flexural test was performed using Instron 4301 testing machine to study flexural properties of the composites with various fiber sizes. The results showed that the flexural properties increased with particle size. The flexural strength of EFB-benzoylated composites was observed to be stronger than untreated EFB fiber. Scanning electron microscope was used to investigate the morphological structure of the fiber surface, fiber pull out, fracture surface, and fiber–matrix interface. The untreated EFB composites showed hole and fiber end, which indicated that most of the fiber have pulled out breaking during the fracture of composites; however, the treated EFB-benzoylated showed a good adhesion between fiber and matrix.     

废报纸脱墨浆两段漂白工艺研究

研究了废报纸脱墨浆过氧化氢―过氧化氢(PP)、过氧化氢―甲脒亚磺酸(PF)两段漂白工艺。结果表明,废报纸脱墨浆PP漂白中第二段过氧化氢漂白的适宜工艺条件为:浆浓20%,漂白时间2.5 h,温度60℃,乙二胺四乙酸(EDTA)用量0.2%,硫酸镁用量0.05%,硅酸钠用量0.5%,过氧化氢用量4%,氢氧化钠用量0.5%,漂后浆白度71.5%(ISO);PF漂白中第二段甲脒亚磺酸漂白的适宜工艺条件为:漂白温度60℃,漂白时间40 min,浆浓10%,甲脒亚磺酸(FAS)用量1.6%,NaOH用量0.8%,漂后浆白度68%(ISO)。     

The Effect of Oil Extraction of the Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunch on the Processability,Impact, and Flexural Properties of PVC-U Composites

The use of oil palm empty fruit bunch fiber (EFB) as reinforcement in the unplasticized poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC-U) is a new attraction in the thermoplastic composite technology. The objectives of this study are to investigate the effects of extracted EFB on processability, impact, and flexural properties of PVC-U composites. A soxhlet extraction was used to extract the extractives from the EFB fibers. The identification of the related functional groups present in the concentrated extract was analyzed using FTIR. To produce composites, PVC resin, EFB fiber, and other additives were first dry-blended using a heavy-duty laboratory mixer before being milled into sheets on a two-roll mill. Test specimens were then hot pressed after which the impact and flexural properties were determined. The processability studies of dry blends were carried out using a Brabender Torque Rheometer model PL2200. The FTIR analysis showed that the oil residue was successfully extracted from EFB fibers. Both the extracted and unextracted fibers decreased the fusion time and melt viscosity of PVC-U. However, the extracted fiber was found to increase the fusion time of PVC as the fiber content increased from 10 to 40 phr. The impact and flexural properties of composites were not significantly affected by the fiber extraction.     

Cardanol biocomposites reinforced with jute fiber: Microstructure,biodegradability, and mechanical properties

This work aims at studying the preparation and characterization of composites of phenolic resin (matrix) based on cashew nut shell liquid, reinforced by natural jute fibers. The fibers were chemically modified using alkaline treatment with solutions of NaOH (5 and 10%) and bleached with sodium hypochlorite NaClO/H₂0 (1:1) at 60–75°C. The microstructure was investigated by Scanning Electron Microscopy to observe the fiber surface after the treatment. As a result, there was an improvement in the thermal stability of the fiber, which was verified by Thermogravimetric Analysis. The jute fiber composites showed an improvement in their mechanical properties due to chemical treatment with 5% NaOH. Their biodegradability level depended on the employed alkali solution concentration. This study is important to evaluate the application of the fibers as renewable materials. POLYM. COMPOS., 31:1928–1937, 2010. © 2010 Society of Plastics Engineers.     

Modification of oil palm empty fruit bunches with maleic anhydride: The effect on the tensile and dimensional stability properties of empty fruit bunch/polypropylene composites

Oil palm empty fruit bunch (EFB)‐filled polypropylene (PP) composites were produced. The EFB filler was chemically modified with maleic anhydride (MAH). The effects of the filler size and chemical modification of EFBs on the tensile and dimensional stability properties of EFB–PP composites were studied. The composites with MAH‐treated EFBs showed higher tensile strengths than those with untreated EFBs. This was attributed to the enhanced compatibility between the MAH‐treated EFBs and PP matrix, as shown in a scanning electron microscopy study. Fourier transform infrared analysis showed evidence of C?C and C?O bonds from MAH at 1630 and 1730 cm^?1, respectively. The MAH‐treated PP composites showed lower water absorption and thickness swelling than those with untreated EFBs. © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 87: 827–835, 2003