Welding of ASTM A106 Gr. B steel pipes for high-temperature service – part 1 – residual stress analysis

Welding is the principal process of manufacture used in the fitting and repair of tube sections. However, there is a lack of information about the alterations mechanically/metallurgically caused by the welding heat cycle, especially about the behaviour of the residual stresses. The objective of the first part of this work was to evaluate the welding residual stress in small diameter pipes used in oil refineries. Two-inch diameter pipes were welded using the manual GTAW process. AWS ER 70 S3 filler rods with diameters of 2.5 and 3.25 mm were employed. An electronic power supply was used, together with data acquisition systems to control the welding parameters. Stress measurements were carried out with an X-ray mini diffractometer. The axial residual stress profiles determined in the outer surface of the pipes were formed by compressive stresses in the weld region (the fusion zone and heat affected zone) and for tension stresses in the areas more distant from the weld bead. The evidence suggested that on the inner surface of the pipes, the stress profile is the opposite from that observed for the outer surface, with tension stress in the welding zone and compressive stress in the region further from the weld bead.     

超细晶Q460钢多层多道焊接头残余应力的数值模拟

依据热弹塑性理论,建立了超细晶Q460钢多层多道焊三维热力学有限元模型.利用ANSYS有限元分析软件对超细晶钢多层多道焊接头残余应力场进行了模拟计算,并对其分布特征进行了分析.结果表明,焊接过程中每层焊缝表面的纵向应力峰值逐渐减小.焊接结束后,焊缝及其近缝区域表现出较高的纵向残余拉应力,应力峰值与材料屈服强度相近.焊根处横向残余拉应力明显较高,但应力峰值小于屈服强度.Von-mises等效应力在起弧及熄弧端较大,达到屈服强度,其余位置均小于屈服强度.     

Study of hybrid welding repair process of friction stir welding grove defect

Abstract

Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) repair process and GTAW+FSW (friction stir welding) hybrid repair process are studied to remove the large size groove defect formed during FSW. The experimental results indicate that the groove defect can be removed by both the repair processes. The tensile strength of the GTAW repair joint is only 55% of that of the base metal. The tensile fracture occurs at the transition zone between the weld zone and the heat affected zone, and the fracture surface of the repair joint is characterised by clear brittleness. In contrast, the GTAW+FSW hybrid repair joint has a high tensile strength equivalent to 70% of that of the base metal. The tensile fracture occurs at the overlap thermomechanically affected zone between the two FSW nuggets, and the fracture feature of the hybrid repair joint is partially plastic and partially brittle.     

Inconel690/S32101异种合金搭接接头的组织与性能

采用氩弧焊将镍基Inconel 690合金覆板以搭接的形式,焊接于新型乏燃料水池材料双相不锈钢S32101的表面,并对比自熔焊和填充焊两种工艺对接头显微组织及力学性能的影响. 结果表明,在合理的工艺条件下,两种工艺均可以获得成形良好的搭接接头,但填充焊可得到更大的搭接宽度,其抗拉强度最高可达538 MPa. 焊后检测发现,焊缝组织主要由胞状晶所组成,其间分布有颗粒状铁素体析出物. 两侧熔合线处呈现不同的结晶形貌,Inconel 690覆板侧具有明显的外延生长组织,而S32101侧则出现平面晶结构. 与自熔焊相比,填充焊热影响区中奥氏体溶解现象仅出现在熔合线附近极小的范围内.     

Experimental Investigation into the Effects of Weld Sequence and Fixture on Residual Stresses in Arc Welding Process

This study concentrates on the effects of weld sequence and welding fixtures on distribution and magnitude of induced arc welding residual stresses built up in butt-joint of Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) AA5251 plates. Aluminum plates have been welded under different welding conditions and then, longitudinal and transverse residual stresses were measured in different points of the welded plates employing hole-drilling technique. The results indicate that welding sequence significantly alters the distributions of both longitudinal and transverse residual stresses while the changing in the weld sequence leads to 44% decrease in longitudinal residual stress. Besides, both the geometry of weld pool and distribution of residual stresses are affected by the welding fixtures while implementation of fixture causes about 21 and 76% reductions in the depth of weld pool and transverse residual stress, respectively, for the material and welding conditions used in this research.     

Numerical and experimental study of thermally induced residual stress in the hybrid laser-GMA welding process

A model based on a double-ellipsoidal volume heat source to simulate the gas metal arc welding (GMAW) heat input and a cylindrical volume heat source to simulate the laser beam heat input was developed to predict the temperature field and thermally induced residual stress in the hybrid laser-gas metal arc (GMA) welding process. Numerical simulation shows that higher residual stress is distributed in the weld bead and surrounding heat-affected zone (HAZ). Effects of the welding speed on the isotherms and residual stress of the welded joint are also studied. It is found that an increase in welding speed can reduce the residual stress concentration in the as-weld specimen. A series of experiments has been performed to verify the developed thermo-mechanical finite element model (FEM), and a qualitative agreement of residual stress distribution and weld geometrical size is shown to exist.     

实时超声冲击消减焊接残余应力

为了消减焊接残余应力,在焊接时对熔池后方焊缝的背面进行超声冲击.结果表明,实时超声冲击能够有效地消减焊接残余应力,其消减焊缝纵向残余应力比消减横向残余应力的效果显著.当在弹塑性转变温度区进行冲击,且冲击头直径较小、形状为球冠形时,消减焊接残余应力的效果更好.实时超声冲击消减焊接残余应力的机理是:在焊缝背面施加超声冲击能使焊缝正面产生拉伸塑性变形,抵消更多升温膨胀时所产生的压缩塑性变形,从而消减焊后的残余应力.     

Suggestion of welding procedure for compressive residual stress induction by using low transformation temperature welding materials

ABSTRACT

To understand the cause of compressive residual stress in welded joints, we analysed by numerical analysis the effect of welding pass sequence using low transformation temperature (LTT) welding materials on residual stress around the weld toe of boxing fillet welded joints. It was determined by numerical analysis that the produced compressive residual stress and the influence of the stiffeners are reduced in the equivalent position of the weld toe in a fillet welded joint because of the influence on the behaviour of the stiffener in the weld being due to residual stress distribution around the weld toe. The residual stress reduction method of extending the length of the welded bead and releasing the weld toe from the stiffener, similar to the concept of discarding a bead to reduce tensile residual stress, was effective in fillet welded joints. Numerical analysis of the relationship between residual stress around the weld toe and width of the weld bead in the bead-on-plate welding model clarified that compressive residual stress can be introduced around the weld toe by having a wide width weld bead. In addition, a fully penetrated welded joint was very effective for causing compressive residual stress around the weld toe.     

Hybrid laser/arc welding process for controlling bead profile

Abstract

A laser hybrid welding process in which a defocused laser beam is applied beside a gas metal arc weld (GMAW) pool to modify the bead shape was studied. The present paper aims to produce welds with improved toe geometry and better fatigue life than those made with GMAW alone and to apply a numerical simulation to help configure the hybrid process. First, stationary hybrid welds were made to validate weld bead shape predictions and to characterise the spreading of the arc weld deposit to the laser heated spot. Next, the travelling hybrid process was configured with the aid of simulations and fatigue test specimens were welded. Proper application of the laser heat input induced molten metal to spread to the laser heated area, increasing the fillet weld leg length. This produced a larger weld toe angle that decreased the stress concentration and increased the fatigue life of the welds relative to standard mean values.     

GTAW熔池形状数值模拟精度的改进

采用高斯分布或双椭圆分布热源模式对GTAW熔池形状的数值模拟中发现,计算得到的熔池尾部形状与实际情况有较大差别.文中分析了误差产生原因,提出了数值模拟程序设计中如何确定热源在工件上作用区域计算半径的三个原则.解决了计算结果中熔池尾部后拖不足的问题,提高了GTAW熔池形状数值模拟精度.     

2060铝锂合金电流辅助激光填丝焊接工艺分析

为了改善2060铝锂合金激光填丝焊接的焊缝组织并进一步提高接头力学性能,使用了辅助激光填丝焊接的新方法.文中采用光纤激光器焊接2 mm厚2060-T8铝锂合金薄板,通过填充焊丝引入直流电流,研究电流对焊缝成形、焊缝结晶组织和接头力学性能的影响.结果表明,施加电流后,焊缝表面鱼鳞纹变得细密均匀,表明焊接过程更加稳定.同时,焊缝上、下熔宽趋于一致,焊缝结晶组织细化,熔合线附近等轴细晶区宽度减小.与无辅助电流相比,接头抗拉强度提高约5.8%.     

A304不锈钢薄板激光焊接接头微观组织及电化学腐蚀研究

为了研究A304不锈钢薄板的连续激光焊接工艺及电化学腐蚀性能,本文采用英国GSI公司的JK2003SM型Nd：YAG固体激光器进行焊接实验,并对焊接接头微观组织进行了研究。研究结果表明工艺参数为P=1 600 W,v=3 mm/s,焊后熔宽为1.6 mm,焊缝的中心位置有等轴晶;A304不锈钢焊接接头耐蚀性最强的是焊缝金属区、其次是母材区、最弱的是热影响区。     

能量配比对激光-MIG复合焊接头残余应力的影响

采用不同激光/电弧能量配比(QRLA)对8 mm厚Q345钢板进行激光-MIG(metal inert gas,MIG)复合焊接,研究了QRLA对复合焊接头的截面形貌和显微组织的影响,并分析了不同QRLA下焊接过程的温度场和接头残余应力分布的变化规律.结果表明,随着QRLA增大,熔宽显著下降,焊接过程的最高温度略有升高...     

Mathematical analysis of the role of recoil pressure in weld pool dynamics during laser-MIG hybrid welding

A mathematical model was established to simulate the weld pool development and dynamic process in stationary laser-MIG hybrid welding. Surface tension and buoyancy were considered to calculate liquid metal flow patter, moreover, typical phenomena of MIG welding, such as filler droplets impinging weld pool, electromagnetic force in the weld pool, and typical phenomena of laser beam welding, such as recoil pressure, Inverse Bremsstrahlung absorption, Fresnel absorption were all considered in the model. The laser beam and arc couple effect were introduced into this model by the plasma width during hybrid welding. The role of recoil pressure in the weld formation was discussed. Transient weld pool shape and complicated liquid metal velocity distribution from two kinds weld pool to an unified weld pool were calculated. The simulated weld bead geometry with consideration recoil pressure was in good agreement with experimental measurement.     

Laser net shape welding

Over the last 40 years of laser welding practice, weld bead geometry always experiences a section of the weld bead slightly above or below the parent material surface. In this paper, a new concept – net shape welding is introduced, whereby the weld joint fusion zone is flat to the parent material surface. Experimental work was carried out to demonstrate net shape laser square butt welded mild steels sheets. Tensile test results show that the net-shape welds well outperform those with traditional weld bead geometry. Computational fluid dynamic and finite element models have been used to assist in the understanding of net-shape weld geometry formation and the superior mechanical properties.     

Stress and distortion mitigation technique for welding titanium alloy thin sheet

Abstract

A stress and distortion mitigation technique for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) of titanium alloy Ti–6Al–4V thin sheet is presented. The proposed welding technique incorporates a trailing heat sink (an intense cooling source) with respect to the welding torch, and it is also called the Dynamically Controlled Low Stress No-Distortion (DC-LSND) technique. The development of this mitigation technique is based on both detailed welding process simulation using the advanced finite element technique and systematic laboratory experiments. The finite element method is used to investigate the detailed thermomechanical behaviour of the weld during conventional GTAW and DC-LSND GTAW. With detailed computational modelling, it is found that by the introduction of a heat sink at some distance behind the welding arc, a saddle shaped temperature field is formed as a result of the cooling effects of the heat sink; the lowest temperature exists in the zone where the heat sink is applied. High tensile action on the surrounding zone is generated by abrupt cooling and contraction of the metals beneath the heat sink, which increases the tensile plastic strain developed during the cooling process and decreases the compressive plastic strain developed in the heating process, and therefore mitigates the residual stresses and plastic strains within and near the weld. The experimental results confirmed the effectiveness of the DCLSND technique and the validity of the computational model. With a proper implementation of the DC-LSND technique, welding stress and distortion can be reduced or eliminated in welding titanium alloy Ti–6Al–4V thin sheet, while no appreciable detrimental effects are caused on the mechanical properties of welded joints by applying the heat sink in the GTAW process.     

外加纵向磁场GTAW焊缝成形机理

以外加间歇交变纵向磁场GTAW（气体保护钨极氩弧焊）为研究对象,通过采用测量相关参数和拍摄电弧的方法,研究了间歇交变纵向磁场GTAW焊接低碳钢、不锈钢和铝合金等材料焊缝成形发生变化的规律和原因。认为在本研究条件下,无论处于溶池下方还是上方的单励磁线圈产生的外加纵向磁场都使GTAW焊接电弧特征、熔池行为和结晶过程发生了变化,从而导致焊缝成形的改变;同时发现当励磁线圈和电弧中心线不同轴心时,外加磁场对焊缝成形的影响较为强烈,其中铁磁性材料所受影响较显著。     

填丝脉冲GTAW熔池形状定义和图像处理

在填丝脉冲GTAW过程中,从熔池图像上可以观察到熔池形状的变化,如度、长度、后拖角和表面高度等。熟练焊工可以根据变化的情况实时地调整焊接规范,保证焊缝成形稳定,利用获得的焊接熔池图像,采用一定的熔池图像处理算法可以计算出熔池形状的特征参数,以满足过程建模和实时控制的要求。本针对填丝脉冲GTAW熔池形状变化的特点,提出了统一的熔池形状非线性拟合公式和熔池形状参数。设计了快速图像处理算法,满足在实际焊接过程中提取熔池形状参数的要求,试验结果证明,熔池形状非线性拟合公式准确,图像处理算法有效,为进一步焊接过程的建模和控制奠定基础。     

Double-sided gas tungsten arc welding process on TC4 titanium alloy

TC4 titanium alloy was welded by double-sided gas tungsten arc welding（GTAW） process in comparison with conventional GTAW process, the microstructure and mechanical performance of weld were also studied. The results indicate that double-sided GTAW is superior over regular single-sided GTAW on the aspects of increasing penetration, reducing welding deformation and improving welding efficiency. Good weld joint was obtained, which can reach 96.14% tensile strength and 70.85% elongation percentage of the base metal. The grains in heat-affected zone（HAZ） are thin and equiaxed and the degree of grain coarsening increases as one moves to the weld center line, and the interior of grains are α and α′ structures. The coarse columned and equiaxed grains, which interlace martensitic structures α′ and acicular α structures, are observed in weld zone. The fracture mode is ductile fracture.     

圆圈形运丝方式下温度影响MIG焊接头组织与断裂位置的规律

以圆圈形运丝为研究对象,利用数值模拟与试验相结合的方法研究了在MIG焊接过程中的温度场分布规律,讨论了温度峰值影响接头显微组织及断裂位置的规律.结果表明,对于圆圈形摆动工艺来说,由于熔池区内左侧的材料经历了周期性的二次加热,导致焊缝左侧及热影响区材料经历的温度峰值均高于右侧;摆动工艺的熔池区温度峰值高于不摆动工艺.与直线运丝相比较,摆动焊焊道内的等轴晶较大,而相邻焊道界面处的柱状晶较小.不同工艺下拉伸试样的断裂位置与焊缝区经历的热循环密切相关.