一种建立板料成形极限应力图的新方法

基于塑性理论建立了比例加载条件下双向拉伸应力应变关系,结合Swift分散性失稳准则,提出了一种建立板料成形极限应力图的方法。分别应用Hill 48和Hosford屈服准则以及单向拉伸性能参数,建立了铝合金板(r<1)和薄钢板(r>1)两种材料的成形极限应力图(FLSD),分析表明,不同的屈服准则的选取对于成形极限应力曲线有不同的影响,对于不同类型的材料屈服准则的影响程度也不同。与由通常的成形极限图(FLD)转换所得到的成形极限应力图(FLSD)进行了对比分析,结果表明,所提出的方法计算过程更为简便,并能较为准确地建立成形极限应力图,可以作为复杂加载路径下的成形极限破裂判据。     

Flow stress evaluation of zinc copper and carbon steel tubes by hydraulic bulge tests considering their anisotropy

The object of this paper is to evaluate the stress–strain characteristics of annealed C26800 zinc copper tubes and AISI 1215 carbon steel tubes considering their anisotropic effects by hydraulic bulge tests and tensile tests. In this analytical model, Hill's orthogonal anisotropic theory was adopted for deriving the effective stresses and effective strains under a biaxial stress state. The tube thickness at the pole, bulge height and the internal forming pressure were measured simultaneously during the bulge tests. The effective stress–effective strain relations could be determined by those measured values and this analytical model. The flow stress curves of C26800 copper and AISI 1215 carbon steel tubes obtained by this approach were compared with those obtained by the tensile test with consideration of material's anisotropy. The finite element method was also adopted to conduct the simulations of hydraulic bulge forming with the flow stress curves obtained by the bulge tests and tensile tests. The analytical forming pressures versus bulge heights were compared with the experimental results to validate the flow stress modeling proposed in this paper.     

Evaluation of stress during and after sputter deposition of Cu and Ta films

The stress evolution of magnetron sputtered copper and tantalum films is presented for samples prepared at various sputtering pressures and powers. In-situ stress values were calculated using measurements from a Multi-beam Optical Stress Sensor (MOSS) system, while ex-situ stress values were calculated using measurements from a stylus profilometer. Extensive microstructural and surface analysis were performed by several techniques and related to the stress state of the film. The results demonstrate that during deposition, independent of the adatom mobility, the stress curves are initially compressive at low sputtering pressures, while at the highest sputtering pressure (1.4 Pa) the stress trend is always tensile. Meanwhile, the stress curves after deposition show a tensile trend for both materials at all sputtering pressures.     

Prediction of fracture forming limit for DP780 steel sheet

This paper is concerned with modeling of fracture strains of DP780 using a newly proposed micro-mechanism-motivated ductile fracture criterion (Lou et al., 2012) and its application to predict limit dome heights (LDH) for nine hemispherical punch-stretch tests. Dog-bone specimens are tested to characterize strain hardening behavior. Five arc-shaped specimens and four square-shaped specimens are drawn until fracture to construct a fracture forming limit diagram (FFLD) using circle grid analysis. Fracture strains are approximated from constructed FFLD in uniaxial, plane strain and balanced biaxial tension. The approximated fracture strains are employed to calculate material constants of the proposed criterion as well as six conventional criteria. FFLDs predicted by these criteria are compared with experimental results. The comparison demonstrates that only the proposed criterion describes FFLD perfectly from uniaxial tension to balanced biaxial tension. All criteria are implemented into ABAQUS/Explicit to predict LDHs of punch-stretch tests. Numerical results indicate that LDHs are severely underestimated for the square-shaped specimens by conventional criteria while the proposed criterion predicts LDHs with good agreement for nine tests with strain paths between uniaxial tension and balanced biaxial tension. Thus, the proposed criterion is recommended to access formability from uniaxial tension to balanced biaxial tension.     

A new experimental approach for obtaining diffuse-strain flow stress curves

A new experimental approach for determining the sheet metal flow stress curve for diffuse necking deformation through the hydraulic bulge expansion (HBE) test is introduced. For this approach, a flat sheet of metal is bulged under the load of hydraulic pressure within the confines of a rigid binder/die tool set of circular die opening. The hydraulic pressure and volume flow rate of the pressurized water entering the die cavity are recorded in real time. Operating under the assumption of thin-walled pressure vessel behavior, the real time data are used to compute the flow stress curve for the material type considered. The novel aspect of the proposed technique is the use of water volume measurement for determining the radius of curvature of the expanding dome. An example flow stress curve for 1.0 mm thick DDQ cold rolled sheet steel is shown to be in good agreement with the flow stress curve obtained through the standard uniaxial tension test. One key advantage of this proposed method is that the analyst may determine the diffuse necking portion of the flow stress curve without employing cumbersome techniques associated with uniaxial tensile test methods. Two disadvantages of the proposed method are the uncertainty associated with having to assume a yield surface, and the error associated with having to assume membrane behavior in the work piece. The introduction of this new method will increase researchers’ access to practical methods for obtaining sheet metal flow stress curves.     

The effect of stress state on high-temperature deformation of fine-grained aluminum–magnesium alloy AA5083 sheet

The effect of stress state on high-temperature deformation of fine-grained aluminum–magnesium alloy AA5083 sheet is investigated over a range of temperatures and strain rates for which the grain-boundary-sliding and solute-drag creep mechanisms govern plastic flow. Experimental data from uniaxial tension and biaxial tension are used in conjunction with finite-element-method simulations to examine the role of stress state. Three different material constitutive models derived from uniaxial tensile data are used to simulate bulge-forming experiments. Comparison of simulation results with bulge-forming data indicates that stress state affects grain-boundary-sliding creep by increasing creep rate as hydrostatic stress increases. Thus, creep deformation is faster under biaxial tension than under uniaxial tension for a constant effective stress. No effect of stress state is observed for solute-drag creep. A new material model that accounts for the effect of stress state on grain-boundary-sliding creep is proposed.     

Resistance and friction stir spot welding of DP600: a comparative study

Abstract

Efforts to reduce vehicle weight and improve crash performance have resulted in increased application of advanced high strength steels (AHSS) and a recent focus on the weldability of these alloys. Resistance spot welding (RSW) is the primary sheet metal welding process in the manufacture of automotive assemblies. Friction stir spot welding (FSSW) was invented as a novel method to spot welding sheet metal and has proven to be a potential candidate for spot welding AHSS. A comparative study of RSW and FSSW on spot welding AHSS has been completed. The objective of this work is to compare the microstructure and mechanical properties of Zn coated DP600 AHSS (1·2 mm thick) spot welds conducted using both processes. This was accomplished by examining the metallurgical cross-sections and local hardnesses of various spot weld regions. High speed data acquisition was also used to monitor process parameters and attain energy outputs for each process. Results show a correlation found among microstructure, failure loads, energy requirements and bonded area for both spot welding processes.     

Improvement of resistance spot weldability for dual-phase (DP600) steels using servo gun

Dual-phase (DP) steel is a kind of advanced high-strength steels (AHSS) developed specifically for automotive application due to its excellent formability and better crash absorption than other conventional AHSS. Resistance spot welding (RSW) is the dominant sheet metal joining method in automobile industry, whereas the weldability of dual-phase steel using conventional air gun is not so excellent for the weld lobe diagram under constant electrode force is too narrow. However, this disadvantage can be easily overcome by servo gun's electrode force control function. This paper mainly relates how to improve weldability of dual-phase steel by adjusting electrode force during spot welding process. By modifying the electrode force using an orthogonal experimental design method, the result shows that the width of weld lobe diagram of dual-phase steel can be nearly doubled.     

Formability prediction of advanced high strength steels using constitutive models characterized by uniaxial and biaxial experiments

Sheet formability, as determined by the limiting dome height (LDH) test, was evaluated for DP and TRIP steel sheet samples. The LDH test was also predicted with finite element (FE) simulations using various constitutive models. Three yield functions, von Mises, Hill's 1948, and Yld2000-2d, were considered to examine the effect of the yield criterion on formability. The anisotropy parameters were determined from different experimental tests and their influences on LDH predictions were analyzed. For Hill's 1948 model, the coefficients were calculated either using the yield stresses or r-values measured in different tension directions. The anisotropy coefficients of the Yld2000-2d were determined using in-plane biaxial test data in addition to the conventional uniaxial test-based data. The stress-strain curves for hardening characterization were measured using uniaxial and bulge tests. The latter provides the flow stress over an extended strain range, compare with uniaxial tension, without showing instability. The constitutive models were implemented in a FE code with a user material subroutine. They were evaluated by comparing the experimental and predicted punch load–displacement and sheet thickness variations after forming in the LDH test. The results for this particular example demonstrated that the non-quadratic yield function and the hardening curve of the bulge test improve the prediction accuracy for sheet forming and formability analyzes significantly.     

Predicting instability at die radii in advanced high strength steels

Recently, the automotive industry has seen increased use of advanced high strength steels (AHSS) due to superior combinations of strength, ductility, and weldability. However, during stamping of AHSS; fractures are periodically observed along bends of small radii. These fractures have been termed ‘shear fractures’ due to limited localized necking, and fracture on alternating 45° planes, through thickness. Such fractures have proven difficult to predict using traditional measures of formability, such as the forming limit diagram (FLD). The present study outlines an approach to predict shear fractures by instability at die radii, represented by maximum applied tensile force as a function of die radius. Due to a transition from die instability to tensile instability with increasing die radius, material tensile strength is imposed as a limiting condition at large radii. Promising correlations are observed for a wide range of commercially produced AHSS including HSLA450, DP600, TRIP780, DP780, and DP980. Both experimental results and theory suggest a critical radius (normalized by sheet thickness: R/t_crit), above which materials will fail in tension, independent of die radius, and correspondingly localized shear fracture would not occur. The critical R/t value is a measure of formability, since for lower R/t_crit values there is a greater range over which materials exhibit tensile failure, readily predicted by material tensile strength. For the steels analyzed in this study, critical R/t values were found to be dependent primarily on material tensile strength, and to a lesser extent, material yield strength, strain hardening exponent (n value), and instability strain.     

DP780高强钢板动态变形力学行为研究

通过准静态拉伸实验和0.1m/s,2m/s,10m/s和15m/s等4种拉伸速度下的动态冲击拉伸实验,对DP780高强钢板的动态变形行为进行了研究,得到了不同应变率下的应力-应变曲线,基于Johnson-Cook模型建立了可描述DP780高强钢变形应变率相关性的应力-应变关系模型。为更好地预测材料动态冲击条件下的应变率以及应力的变化,提出了一个基于宏观变量速度v的本构关系方程,数值拟合结果与实验结果十分吻合。     

Effect of temperature,strain rate and fibre orientation on the plastic flow behaviour and formability of AZ31 magnesium alloy

The sheet formability of AZ31 magnesium alloy has been widely investigated by means of uniaxial tensile and hemispherical punch tests, performed at different temperatures and strain rates, using samples with different fibre orientations. The results of the uniaxial tensile tests were analysed in terms of flow curves, ductility and microstructural evolution. They show that the flow stress decreases and ductility increases as temperature rises and strain rate reduces; the ductility is almost independent of the fibre orientation that, however, slightly affects the flow stress values. The formability, described by the forming limit curves (FLCs), improves with increasing temperature and decreasing strain rate. Moreover, formability along the rolling direction (RD) is higher than that along the transversal one (TD), even if the FLCs obtained along the TD have a larger extension in the drawing side than the ones along the RD. Such behaviours were related to the constitutive parameters and microstructure developed during deformation.     

板料成形极限理论与实验研究进展

成形极限是板材成形领域中重要的性能指标和工艺参数。文章在阐述成形极限在板料成形中的意义的基础上,综述并分析了成形极限在理论和实验方面的研究进展。成形极限图受应变路径的影响,给工业生产应用带来极大不便。以极限应力构成的成形极限应力图不受应变路径的影响,作为复杂加载路径的成形极限判据更加方便和实用。FLSD研究与FLD相结合,成为精确地确定破裂判别准则的主要途径之一,是近来研究的热点。十字形双向拉伸是实现复杂加载路径有效实用的试验方法。最后对成形极限应力图和十字形双向拉伸试验需要解决的关键问题作了阐述。     

Evaluation of tool materials, coatings and lubricants in forming galvanized advanced high strength steels (AHSS)

The major objective of this study is to establish guidelines to select the optimum combination of die materials, coatings and lubricants in stamping galvanized AHSS (DP600, TRIP780 and DP980) for automotive structural parts. For this purpose, Finite Element Analysis (FEA) and various tribotests, e.g. Twist Compression Test (TCT), Deep Drawing Test (DDT) and Strip Drawing Test (SDT), were used. The results of this study helped to determine the critical interface pressure and temperature that initiate lubricant failure and galling in forming galvanized AHSS for a given die material and coating.     

中心区减薄的十字形试件拉伸性能研究

中心区减薄的十字形试件拉伸,是实现板料双向拉伸变路径条件下,达到大变形以至破裂的可行试验方法,对于复杂加载路径板料屈服行为及成形极限研究,有重要的试验意义。通过标准单向拉伸试验,对比研究了板材减薄前后单向拉伸性能的变化。对于中心区方形减薄的十字形试件,进行了单臂试件和十字形试件的单向拉伸试验,验证了中心区减薄后应力计算的正确性。     

Evaluation of effect of flow stress characteristics of tubular material on forming limit in tube hydroforming process

The material properties for the analytical and numerical simulation in sheet metal processes, especially in tube hydroforming process, are generally obtained from the uniaxial tensile test of raw sheet material. However, the validation of the formability and reliability of the numerical simulation for the tube hydroforming process arises from the fact that the material characteristics of tubes are different from those of the raw sheet materials. In order to determine the most suitable material property of the tubular material for the evaluation of forming limit on the THF process, the uniaxial tensile test for the specimens of the raw sheet metal and the roll-formed tube and the free bulge test for the roll-formed tubular material are carried out in this paper. The forming limit curves are also derived using plastic instability based on three kinds of necking criteria, which are Hill’s local necking criterion for sheet and Swift’s diffuse necking criteria for sheet and tube, to describe and explain the forming limits for the roll-formed tubular material in the THF process. In order to acquire the informative data on the forming limit curves in the THF process, the loading condition of the free bulge test is controlled. The proper band from nearly necking initiation to nearly bursting initiation has been defined for the roll-formed tubular material in the THF process. It can be concluded that the flow stress of the tubular material should be determined from the actual free bulge test to find the practically valuable forming limit curve for the THF process.     

Evaluation of the plastic yield locus for embossed sheet using biaxial tensile tests

3D-structured (embossed) aluminium sheets have been used as heat insulation materials in automotive exhaust parts because the embossments on the sheets increase the surface area and reinforce the stiffness of exhaust components. Unlike the press-forming process for flat (non-embossed) sheets, however, that for embossed aluminium sheets is constrained by many restrictions given the distinct mechanical properties and geometric 3D shape of the latter. In designing sheet-stamping tools, manufacturers have recently used CAE technologies based on finite element analysis. Guaranteeing the effectiveness of CAE technologies necessitates information about the plastic yield criterion, which is determined primarily by performing a biaxial tensile test on cruciform-shaped specimens. We measured the yield locus of an embossed aluminium 3004-P sheet by using the camera vision method instead of strain gauge measurement because of the difficulty in attaching a strain gauge to the central region of the aluminium body. The measured yield locus of the studied sheet shows that its yield stress in equi-biaxial stress is smaller than the flat sheet yield locus measured by the strain gauge method. The shape of the yield locus of the embossed aluminium sheet also adequately corresponds with Logan-Hosford anisotropic yield function.     

Deformation behavior of TC 1 titanium alloy sheet under double-sided pressure

In order to investigate the influence of normal stress through thickness on the formability of sheet metal, the viscous pressure bulge（VPB） tests of an annealed TC1 titanium alloy sheet were carried out under two different conditions： double-sided pressure bulging and conventional single-sided pressure bulging. The automated strain analysis, measurement environment （ASAME） and scanning electron microscope（SEM） were used to study the strain distributions and the fracture morphology of bulged specimens. It is found that thickness strain is increased for double-sided pressure bulging specimens, and the limiting dome height（LDH） of double-sided pressure bulging specimens is increased by 31.8% compared with conventional single-sided pressure bulging specimens. The dimples in fracture surface for double-sided pressure bulging specimens are larger and deeper than those for conventional single-sided pressure bulging specimens. The results indicate that normal stress through thickness is helpful in improving the formability of titanium alloy sheet metal.     

基于颗粒流方法的隧道围岩力学特性数值模拟研究

针对加载机制作用下深部岩石的力学特性,本文利用二维颗粒流数值模拟(PFC2D)方法,对阜新海棠山隧道围岩(砂岩)进行了不同加载速率下单轴压缩试验、巴西劈裂试验以及不同围压下的双轴压缩试验,分析了不同实验条件下砂岩的力学响应特征,研究结果表明:同一围压下,随着加载速率的逐渐增大,砂岩的单轴抗压强度、抗拉强度均呈逐渐递增趋...     

Anisotropy and formability of AA5182-0 aluminium alloy sheets

This paper presents a new yield criterion for orthotropic sheet metals and its implementation in a theoretical model of the forming limit diagrams. The equivalent stress equation shows that the shape of the yield surface is defined by eight material parameters. The minimisation of an error-function has been used for the numerical identification of these coefficients. The parameters are established in such a way that the constitutive equation associated to the yield surface reproduces the plastic behaviour of the actual material. The uniaxial yield stresses (σ₀, σ₄₅, σ₉₀), biaxial yield stress (σ_b), uniaxial anisotropy coefficients (r₀, r₄₅, r₉₀) have been used in identification. The new yield criterion has been implemented in the Marciniak-Kuczynski theory in order to predict the limit strains. The theoretical forming limit curves have been compared with the experimental ones. The friction free tests, the hydraulic bulge test (for the positive minor strains) and the tensile test for plane strain and for uniaxial tensile test (for the negative minor strains) are used. The predicted yield surface and forming limit diagrams for AA5182-0 aluminium alloy sheets are in good agreement with the experimental ones.