Terrorism and cardiovascular responses to acute stress in children.

A number of studies have considered whether background stress affects cardiovascular responses to acute stress tasks. The present study considers the effect of a potent background stressor with a clear onset, namely the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001. Specifically, the authors investigated differences among 9.5-year-old children tested before (N = 30) and then following (N = 20) the 9/11 attacks. In addition, a majority of these children (N = 37) were retested approximately 1 year later (i.e., before and after 9/11/2002). Children tested directly following 9/11/2001 exhibited significantly greater stroke volume and cardiac output responses to acute stress tasks compared with their responses 1 year later, and this change in reactivity differed significantly from the change in reactivity exhibited by children tested before 9/11/2001 and again 1 year later. These results suggest that a potent background stressor can temporarily heighten some children's cardiovascular responses to subsequent acute stressors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Religious practice and cardiovascular reactions during stress.

Recent research has pointed to a number of psychological and sociological correlates of physiological reactions during acute stress. In terms of cardiovascular response we have demonstrated a positive association between anger directed outward and a nor-epinephrine-like cardiovascular pattern and between anger directed inward or anxiety and an epinephrine-like pattern. We have also shown that a subject's perception of his father as stern and dominant in discipline was associated with a nor-epinephrinelike cardiovascular reaction while perception of father as mild and nondominant in discipline was associated with an epinephrine-like pattern. This report describes a third correlate of cardiovascular reactions in acute stress, that of religous practice and attitudes. The data on which these findings are based were gathered in a two-year study of healthy college students during acute laboratory stress. One hundred twenty-five randomly selected male students were placed in laboratory stress situations where they were given arithmetical problems to do in their heads while being hurried and criticized by the experimenter, or they were asked to repeat a story from memory while talking into an auditory feedback device. Cardiovascular measurements by means of a blood pressure cuff and a ballistocardiograph were obtained before and after each session and the Ss were interviewed at the end of the stress situation for a measure of their emotional reactions. Data on religious practice and attitudes were obtained from the personal history questionnaire and the Religious Conventionalism scale of Levinson. The results showed that the Ss whose parents were regular attenders were more inclined to have nor-epinephrine-like cardiovascular reactions while those whose parents were occasional or infrequent attenders had epinephrine-like patterns. These data when combined with those on which we have reported previously indicate that there is a constellation of psychological and sociological factors which are associated with the cardiovascular reactions of healthy Ss in acute stress. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Thinking about a close relationship differentially impacts cardiovascular stress responses among depressed and nondepressed women.

Objective: Individuals with depression and low social support are at elevated risk for developing cardiovascular disease—presumptively through mechanisms involving dysregulated stress physiology. While depressed individuals often report diminished social support and elevated levels of social distress, few studies have examined how social factors impact stress-related cardiovascular activity in depressed samples. Accordingly, we evaluated the social modulation of stress-related cardiovascular activity in a sample of 38 medically healthy, unmedicated depressed and nondepressed individuals. Methods: Cardiovascular and psychological measures were obtained before and after depressed and nondepressed women engaged in a speech stress task. To evaluate the impact of social factors on stress responses, half of the women completed the speech stress task first, while the other half completed the speech stress after engaging in a relationship-focused imagery task. Results: Nondepressed women who first thought about a close relationship displayed global attenuations in blood pressure throughout the subsequent stress task, consistent with a stress-buffering effect of perceived social support. Conversely, depressed women who first thought about a close relationship displayed global elevations in blood pressure throughout the subsequent stress task, consistent with a stress-enhancing effect of perceived social distress in depressed women. Conclusion: Thinking about a close relationship differentially impacted subsequent cardiovascular activity during an evocative stressor in depressed and nondepressed women. Understanding the social context in which stress is experienced may aid in identifying, and ultimately attenuating, cardiovascular risks observed among patients with major depressive disorder. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Blood pressure reactivity and cognitive function in the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging.

Objective: Several blood pressure indexes of autonomic dysregulation, including stress-induced blood pressure responses (i.e., reactivity), have been associated previously with stroke, silent cerebrovascular disease, and decreased cognitive function. Design: The authors examined the cross-sectional relations among systolic blood pressure (SBP) and diastolic blood pressure (DBP) reactivity and cognitive function in a sample of stroke- and dementia-free older adults (n = 73, 53% male, 72% Caucasian, mean age = 70.14 years) from the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging. Main Outcome Measures: Age, education, baseline, and reactive blood pressure levels were regressed on cognitive test scores measuring the domains of attention, learning and memory, verbal functions/language skills, and perceptuo-motor speed. A Bonferroni correction was employed and results significant at the standard p     

Links between physical fitness and cardiovascular reactivity and recovery to psychological stressors: A meta-analysis.

A meta-analysis of published studies with adult human participants was conducted to evaluate whether physical fitness attenuates cardiovascular reactivity and improves recovery from acute psychological stressors. Thirty-three studies met selection criteria; 18 were included in recovery analyses. Effect sizes and moderator influences were calculated by using meta-analysis software. A fixed effects model was fit initially; however, between-studies heterogeneity could not be explained even after inclusion of moderators. Therefore, to account for residual heterogeneity, a random effects model was estimated. Under this model, fit individuals showed significantly attenuated heart rate and systolic blood pressure reactivity and a trend toward attenuated diastolic blood pressure reactivity. Fit individuals also showed faster heart rate recovery, but there were no significant differences in systolic blood pressure or diastolic blood pressure recovery. No significant moderators emerged. Results have important implications for elucidating mechanisms underlying effects of fitness on cardiovascular disease and suggest that fitness may be an important confound in studies of stress reactivity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cardiovascular reactivity to and recovery from psychological challenge as predictors of 3-year change in blood pressure.

The authors examined whether cardiovascular reactivity to and recovery from psychological challenge predict 3-year change in blood pressure (BP) among 216 initially normotensive, community-dwelling adults. Clinic BP assessments were conducted at baseline and follow-up. BP and heart rate (HR) readings were obtained before, during, and after 5 psychological tasks at baseline. Following adjustment for traditional predictors of BP and lifestyle factors, poorer systolic BP recovery across the tasks was associated with greater 3-year increases in clinic systolic and diastolic BP. Both diastolic BP recovery and HR recovery were also related to 3-year change in clinic BP, though cardiovascular reactivity measures were not. These findings suggest that the duration of stress-related cardiovascular responses may be important for predicting longitudinal changes in BP. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychological Stress Tasks in the Prediction of Blood Pressure Level and Need for Antihypertensive Medication: 9-12 Years of Follow-Up.

Increased blood pressure (BP) reactivity to subtypes of psychological stimuli may differentially predict the development of future BP elevation or hypertension. The authors present the 9-12-year follow-up results of 82 (86%) of 95 male participants with different BP levels. They were healthy, untreated, and age-matched volunteers from a routine health checkup carried out on all 35-, 40-, and 45-year-olds from a medium-sized city. Intra-arterial systolic blood pressure (SBP) during the psychological tasks improved the prediction of future casual SBP and noninvasive 24-hr ambulatory SBP compared with predictions from casual diagnostic measurements. Diastolic blood pressure (DBP) was very useful when added to casual DBP in predicting the need for antihypertensive medication. Reactivity to active tasks especially predicts the need for antihypertensive medication. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Job demands, decisional control, and cardiovascular responses.

The demand-control model for coronary heart disease was tested using ambulatory blood pressure monitoring. Male patrol officers (N = 118) wore ambulatory blood pressure monitors during 1 of their day shifts with readings taken every 30 min. Following each reading, officers completed a questionnaire using a handheld computer. Significant interactions were obtained between job demands and decisional control for heart rate and pressure rate product such that both variables were highest under conditions of high demand and low control. Main effects were obtained for control such that diastolic blood pressure and mean arterial pressure were significantly higher under conditions of low control. These results support the demand-control model and emphasize the importance of psychological control in cardiovascular responses. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Discrimination, dispositions, and cardiovascular responses to stress.

Objective: Recent research suggests that past exposure to discrimination may influence perceptions of, and physiological responses to, new challenges. The authors examined how race and trait levels of hostility and optimism interact with past exposure to discrimination to predict physiological reactivity and recovery during an anger recall task. Design: A community sample of 165 normotensive Black and White adults participated in an anger recall task while having their cardiovascular function monitored. Main Outcome Measures: Blood pressure and heart rate indicators of physiological reactivity and recovery. Results and Conclusion: Participants had higher reactivity and slower recovery to the anger recall task when they had high past discrimination, low cynicism, or high optimism. The pattern of effects was similar for both racial groups, but Blacks had more acute reactivity and slower recovery than Whites. These results are consistent with the perspective of discrimination as a chronic stressor that is related to acute stress responses, particularly for Blacks. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Trait positive affect buffers the effects of acute stress on skin barrier recovery.

Objective: This study examines the role of self-reported trait positive affect (PA) on skin barrier recovery after skin disruption, and whether the role of trait PA in wound healing is consistent with the direct effects model or the stress-buffering model of PA and health. Design: Sixty healthy participants (mean age 22.7 ± 3.9 years) completed a self-report measure of trait positive and negative affect, underwent a “tape-stripping” procedure that disrupts normal skin barrier function, and were randomly assigned to a Stress (Trier Social Stress Test) or No Stress (reading task) condition. Main Outcome Measures: Skin barrier recovery was assessed by measuring transepidermal water loss up to 2 hr after skin disruption. Results: Multilevel modeling indicated that greater trait PA was related to faster skin barrier recovery (p     

Associations between acute lipid stress responses and fasting lipid levels 3 years later.

The authors assessed the association between lipid responses to acute mental stress and fasting serum lipid levels 3 years later in 199 middle-aged men and women. Total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein (LDL), and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol increased following moderately stressful behavioral tasks. LDL cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, and total:HDL ratio measured 3 years later were predicted by acute stress responses independent of gender, age, socioeconomic position, change in body mass, smoking, alcohol consumption, or hormone replacement therapy baseline lipid levels. The odds of clinically elevated cholesterol were significantly greater in the highest compared with the lowest stress tertile, independent of baseline levels and covariates. Acute lipid stress responsivity may reflect processes that contribute to the development of elevated blood cholesterol concentration. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of acute progesterone administration upon responses to acute psychosocial stress in men.

Animal studies suggest that neuroactive steroids, in particular progesterone and its metabolites, have stress-dampening effects. However, few studies have explored these effects in humans. In this study, we investigated the effects of acute progesterone administration on responses to the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST). Healthy men participated in the TSST 3.5 hrs after intramuscular injection of 0, 50, or 100 mg progesterone (N = 16, 14, and 14). We measured cardiovascular (heart rate, blood pressure), hormonal (plasma adrenocorticotrophic hormone, cortisol, and noradrenaline), and subjective (e.g., anxiety, arousal) responses to stress in the three groups. Before the TSST, progesterone injections increased plasma levels without altering physiological or subjective states. Stress produced its expected physiological and subjective effects among placebo-treated individuals. Progesterone 50 mg attenuated peak increases in plasma cortisol and reduced changes in negative mood and alertness after stress, yet it increased plasma noradrenaline and systolic blood pressure. Progesterone 100 mg also attenuated stress-induced increases in alertness and arousal, yet it potentiated stress-induced increases in diastolic pressure. Thus, progesterone dampened some of the psychological effects of stress but produced inconsistent effects on physiological stress responses. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Do behavioral responses mediate or moderate the relation between cardiovascular reactivity to stress and parental history of hypertension?

To examine whether differences in behavioral responses to stress mediated or moderated the relation between cardiovascular response to stress and parental history of hypertension, 64 healthy undergraduates--16 men with hypertensive parents (PH+), 16 men without hypertensive parents (PH-), 16 PH+ women, and 16 PH- women--participated in a mental arithmetic task, mirror tracing task, and 2 interpersonal role plays. PH+ participants exhibited higher resting heart rates than PH - participants and higher resting systolic blood pressures (SBPs) than PH- women. PH+ participants exhibited greater SBP responses to tasks and engaged in more negative verbal and nonverbal behavior across tasks than PH- counterparts. Differences in behavioral responding neither mediated nor moderated the observed relation between parental history status and SBP response to stress. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Age-related differences in ambulatory blood pressure during daily stress: Evidence for greater blood pressure reactivity with age.

Prior research on age and emotions has found that older adults may show better physiological regulation to stressful stimuli than do younger adults. However, the stress reactivity literature has shown that age is associated with higher cardiovascular reactivity to laboratory stress (J. R. Jennings et al., 1997). The authors investigated these conflicting findings further by examining daily ambulatory blood pressure in 428 middle-aged to older adults. Consistent with the age and reactivity literature, relatively old individuals showed significantly greater increases in ambulatory diastolic blood pressure compared with younger individuals when dealing with daily stressors. However, results also revealed that relatively old individuals reported less of an increase in negative affect during daily stress compared with their younger counterparts. The results of this study are consistent with the age-related increase in cardiovascular risk but highlight the complex links between stress and different facets of the aging process. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Conflict structure moderates associations between cardiovascular reactivity and negative marital interaction.

This study examined the role of marital conflict structure--who desires and requests change versus who responds to the change request--in spouses' cardiovascular responses to marital interactions. Forty-one couples discussed 2 marital topics: one in which the wife desired change in the husband, and one in which the husband desired change in the wife. Cardiovascular responses were assessed at 2-min intervals. Results indicated that marital conflict structure moderates cardiovascular reactivity during negative marital interactions: Husbands and wives whose interactions were characterized by high levels of negative behavior showed the most pronounced diastolic blood pressure reactivity, but only when they were in the role of desiring change in their spouses. Implications for gender differences in marital conflict physiology are considered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Magnitude and duration of cardiovascular response to anger in Vietnam veterans with and without posttraumatic stress disorder.

This study investigated the cardiovascular responses to a relived anger task in 118 male Vietnam combat veterans (62 with posttraumatic stress disorder [PTSD] and 56 without PTSD). Participants completed standardized diagnostic measures, hostility measures, and a laboratory session in which they relived a self-chosen anger memory while heart rate (HR), systolic blood pressure, and diastolic blood pressure (DBP) were measured continuously using an Ohmeda Finapres monitor. Compared with veterans without PTSD, PTSD veterans took less time to feel anger, had greater mean HR and DBP response during relived anger, and reported greater anger and anxiety during the task. There was a significant relationship between covert hostility and anger response during and after the anger task only in participants with PTSD. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Are changes in blood pressure and total cholesterol related to changes in mood? An 18-month study of men and women.

The authors investigated the within-person association of reported mood with blood pressure and total cholesterol (TC) levels, each assessed 4 times over an 18-month period in 128 men and 154 women. Change over time in tense arousal was significantly positively associated with changes over time in systolic blood pressure (SBP) and diastolic blood pressure (DBP) but not TC. A change in hedonic tone was significantly associated with SBP (an increase in negative affect was associated with an increase in SBP) but not with DBP or TC. There were no sex differences in associations of mood with SBP or TC. However, increases in tense arousal and negative affect were significantly associated with an increase in DBP for women but not men. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social relationships and ambulatory blood pressure: Structural and qualitative predictors of cardiovascular function during everyday social interactions.

Healthy normotensive men and women (N=102) underwent a 3-day ambulatory blood pressure (BP) assessment in which a BP reading was taken 5 min into each social interaction. After each interaction, participants completed a diary that included structural categorization of the relationship and ratings of the quality of the relationship with the interaction partner. Random regression analyses revealed that interactions with family members and spouses were associated with lower ambulatory BP. Interactions with ambivalent network members (characterized by both positive and negative feelings) were associated with the highest ambulatory systolic BP, an effect that was independent of the familial effects on BP. Although there were psychological correlates associated with both structural and functional aspects of relationships, no evidence was found that these mediated the primary findings involving ambulatory BP. These data highlight the influence of both structural and qualitative aspects of relationships on ambulatory BP and possibly health. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Posttraumatic stress symptoms and subclinical cardiovascular disease in police officers.

The present study examined associations of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms with subclinical cardiovascular disease in police officers. A stratified sample of 100 police officers was randomly selected from the Buffalo, New York, Police Department. Cardiovascular disease biomarkers were assessed by ultrasound of the brachial artery (flow-mediated dilation [FMD]). PTSD symptoms were measured with the Impact of Event Scale (IES). FMD was lowest in the severe PTSD symptom category when compared to the mild PTSD symptom category (1.91 vs. 5.15% increase, respectively; p=.21) even after adjustment for lifestyle and demographics. In conclusion, higher PTSD symptomatology in this police sample was associated with a nearly twofold reduction in brachial artery FMD, a biomarker for subclinical cardiovascular disease. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Emotional and cardiovascular sensitization to daily stress following childhood parental loss.

Adverse childhood events can influence the development of emotional and physiological self-regulatory abilities, with significant consequences for vulnerability to psychological and physical illness. This study evaluated stress sensitization and inoculation models of the impact of early parental death on stress exposure and reactivity in late adolescence/young adulthood. Ambulatory blood pressure (BP) and diary reports of minor stress were collected every 30 min during waking hours over a 24-hr period from 91 late adolescents/young adults (43 early bereaved, 48 nonbereaved). Across the sample, minor stressors were associated with elevated BP and negative affect. The bereaved group had lower BP than did the nonbereaved group. Within the bereaved group, higher perceived caring from the surviving parent was associated with fewer reports of minor stress and lower stress-related negative affect. Higher perceived parental caring during childhood was associated with lower BP across the sample and more frequent hassles in the nonbereaved group. Findings support both the stress inoculation and sensitization models, suggesting that childhood parental loss and parental caring exert important influences on children's development of stress sensitivity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)