Land use change (LUC) analysis and life cycle assessment (LCA) of Brazilian soybean biodiesel

Biodiesel is an alternative to tackle global warming, especially for reducing greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions when replacing fossil fuels. However, it can compete for land with food production. Brazil is a global player on soybeans farming and most of the biodiesel produced in the country comes from it. This work proposes a new approach to evaluate its impact, associating land use change (LUC) analysis with life cycle assessment (LCA) in a representative Brazilian soybeans farming zone. LUC assessment used Landsat satellite imagery analysis from the years 1993 and 2013, and intergovernmental panel on climate change (IPCC) guidelines to estimate GHG emissions. LCA was based on field data collection processed with SimaPro^®. Results show that the increment on annual GHG emissions per hectare, derived from the apportioning total emissions for the period studied, was 50.16 kg CO₂ eq ha^?1 y^?1. From this increment, 97.1 % come from LUC, being the largest share from converting pastures to soybeans farming (81.2 % of the total emissions). However, in the area, a large share of converted pastures are degraded, acting as source of emissions, not as sink as considered by IPCC. At the same time, practices like no-tillage make soybeans a carbon sink. Therefore, results could change if alternative approaches were to be adopted, being a challenge for future work. Therefore, when considering biodiesel from soybeans, a close regard to local land use dynamics is essential to evaluate impacts. Besides, promoting more efficient use of land already cleared with the goal to avoid deforestation can turn biodiesel into a sustainable renewable energy source.     

Mobilising the potential towards low-carbon emissions society in Asia

Emission of CO₂, CH₄, and NO _x is among the main sources of greenhouse gases (GHGs) emitted through human activities such as fossil fuels combustion for power, heat and transportation, industrial processes, and land-use change. Low-carbon emission has become synonymous with GHG emission, which is often expressed in t CO₂ eq. as derived from the major GHG. However, CO₂ emission from fossil fuel constitutes just about 2/3 of GHGs. Low-carbon emission has received high publicity in recent years as a major reason for the potential mitigation of climate change. Achieving low GHG emission targets while decoupling the economic growth from high emissions, pollution, and resource use is desirable. This paper reviews the low-carbon emissions initiatives to develop resilient growth strategies to reduce GHG emissions in Asia and beyond. Four major initiatives, including the modelling of GHG emission and mitigation initiative; sustainable energy systems; sustainable waste management; and education and community outreach, are reviewed for mobilising the potential towards low-carbon emissions societies in Asia. Cooperation from major stakeholders, e.g. government, policy makers, financial institutions, private investors, industrial, commercial sector, residential, has been needed towards realising the goal.     

Production of green energy from co-digestion: perspectives for the Province of Cuneo, energetic balance and environmental sustainability

In Italy and many European countries, energy production from biomass is encouraged by strong economic subsidies so that biomass energy plants are getting large diffusion. Nevertheless, it is necessary to define the environmental compatibility taking into account global parameters as well as environmental impacts at regional and local scales coming from new polluting emissions. The environmental balances regarding new energy plants are of primary importance within very polluted areas such as Northern Italy where air quality limits are systematically exceeded, in particular for PM₁₀, NO₂, and ozone. The paper analyzes the renewable energy scenario relating to manure anaerobic digestion and biogas production for the Province of Cuneo, N–W Italy, and the environmental sustainability of the possible choices. The study is focused on energy producibility, heat and power, nitrogen oxides and ammonia emissions, GHG (greenhouse gases) balances dealing also with indirect releases of CH₄ and N₂O, as well as emissions due to energy crops production. The most important conclusion that can be drawn is that the production of renewable energy from anaerobic digestion could cover up to 13 % of the Province electricity consumption, but sustainability in terms of CO₂ emissions can be reached only through an overriding use of agricultural waste products (manure and by-products instead of energy crops) and cogeneration of thermal energy at disposal; the application of the best available techniques to waste gas cleaning, energy recovery, and digestate chemical–physical treatments allows positive emissive balances.     

Greenhouse gas emissions and non-renewable energy use profiles of bio-based succinic acid from <Emphasis Type="Italic">Arundo donax</Emphasis> L. lignocellulosic feedstock

The European Union recognizes the priority of new bio-based industrial pathways, such as bio-based succinic acid (bio-SA). This study has investigated, through a life cycle method, the cradle-to-factory gate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and non-renewable energy use (NREU) of bio-SA from lignocellulosic giant reed (GR) feedstock grown on marginal lands in Southern Italy (GR bio-SA). The aims were to: (1) evaluate the environmental performance of the GR bio-SA and (2) discuss the GR bio-SA profile with respect to its fossil counterparts and alternative bio-SA routes. For 1 kg of GR bio-SA, the gross GHG emissions amounted to 3.9 kg CO₂ eq, while through the inclusion of the biogenic C potentially stored in SA molecule (1.47 kg CO₂ eq) and soil organic matter (0.44 kg CO₂ eq), the final net global warming potential would be nearly halved. Similarly to current starch-based SA supply chains, the GR bio-SA showed: (1) better gross GHG profile compared to the fossil adipic acid (GHG emissions reduced by 55%) and (2) comparable net GHG emissions in comparison with petrochemicals SA and maleic acid. The total NREU for 1 kg of GR bio-SA amounted to 26.6 MJ, with reduced energy consumption by about 55–79% relative to fossil counterparts, thanks to the on-site energetic valorization of lignin and holocellulose residues with relatively high heating values. The soy protein concentrate and the inorganic chemicals used in the co-fermentation showed up the prevailing contributions to the GHG and NREU profiles of the GR bio-SA, suggesting the need to optimize nitrogen and carbon sources of the growth medium.     

Accounting for indirect land-use change in the life cycle assessment of biofuel supply chains

The expansion of land used for crop production causes variable direct and indirect greenhouse gas emissions, and other economic, social and environmental effects. We analyse the use of life cycle analysis (LCA) for estimating the carbon intensity of biofuel production from indirect land-use change (ILUC). Two approaches are critiqued: direct, attributional life cycle analysis and consequential life cycle analysis (CLCA). A proposed hybrid ‘combined model’ of the two approaches for ILUC analysis relies on first defining the system boundary of the resulting full LCA. Choices are then made as to the modelling methodology (economic equilibrium or cause–effect), data inputs, land area analysis, carbon stock accounting and uncertainty analysis to be included. We conclude that CLCA is applicable for estimating the historic emissions from ILUC, although improvements to the hybrid approach proposed, coupled with regular updating, are required, and uncertainly values must be adequately represented; however, the scope and the depth of the expansion of the system boundaries required for CLCA remain controversial. In addition, robust prediction, monitoring and accounting frameworks for the dynamic and highly uncertain nature of future crop yields and the effectiveness of policies to reduce deforestation and encourage afforestation remain elusive. Finally, establishing compatible and comparable accounting frameworks for ILUC between the USA, the European Union, South East Asia, Africa, Brazil and other major biofuel trading blocs is urgently needed if substantial distortions between these markets, which would reduce its application in policy outcomes, are to be avoided.     

Solid biofuels in Mexico: a sustainable alternative to satisfy the increasing demand for heat and power

Bioenergy is the largest renewable energy source in Mexico with an estimated 4–9% of total current energy demand. There are large uncertainties and contrasting estimates regarding its current extent and end-uses, particularly with traditional uses. However, a large potential exists to improve the efficiency of existing uses and, at the same time, to diversify the use of SBF in the industrial and power sectors. This paper aims at: providing the first updated and comprehensive estimate of current SBF demand in Mexico including traditional and modern uses; providing a consistent estimate of actual SBF supply potential; estimating the total potential substitution of fossil fuels that could be achieved by SBF considering an integrated “modernization scenario”; and finally describing the main barriers limiting SBF to fully triggering its potential. Results show that current SBF consumption reached 481 PJ/yr in 2015; SBF supply potential reaches 3622 PJ/yr, out of which 883 PJ/yr could be used to substitute up to 29% of current demand of FF, mitigating 66 MtCO_2e/yr of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, or near 88 MtCO_2e/yr if mitigation from traditional uses is added.     

Efficiency analysis of combined biomass and solar energy in Lithuania

In this paper were performed analyses of the renewable energy impact on reduction of the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The pilot integrated biomass and solar water heating system at public institutions of Lithuania were analyzed. Purpose of this analysis was to evaluate systems′ efficiency of performance. It has been executed for measurements of produced energy, consumed water, and burned biofuel in summer and winter time. Analysis showed that heat load for domestic hot water is too low for biomass boiler for summer season. That problem could be improved with optimizing solar heating system. Modernization of this system could significantly reduce energy costs and emissions of carbon dioxide and demonstrate an integrated solution with bio and solar energies utilization in this system. Investigation shows that Lithuania can reduce GHG emission to 8 % in the period 2008–2012 by increasing use of biomass, solar, and others renewables and achieve the requirement of the Kyoto protocol.     

Remanufacturing as a means for achieving low-carbon SMEs in Indonesia

Remanufacturing can reduce the energy intensity and associated greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions significantly and increase the eco-efficiency of product systems by utilizing recovered end-of-life parts. This paper presents the GHG mitigation potential of technically feasible remanufactured alternators in Indonesian small- and medium-sized enterprizes. Life cycle assessment approach and Weibull ++8 software have been used to calculate environmental and quality parameters. Since existing remanufactured alternators have not been found to meet the technical criterion for customers’ satisfaction, a number of alternative remanufacturing strategies have been explored to identify an option that has not only reduced GHG emissions but also has satisfied reliability, durability and warranty period criterion. Three improvement scenarios involving three different remanufacturing strategies were investigated in this case study, and yielded useful insights in order to come up with a technically feasible remanufacturing strategy for reducing a significant amount of GHG emissions. The improvement scenario III, which maximizes the use of used components, was found to offer technically and environmentally feasible remanufacturing solutions. Overall, this research has found that about 7207 t of CO₂ -eq GHG emissions and 111.7 TJ embodied energy consumption could potentially be avoided if 10 % of alternators in Indonesian automobile sector are remanufactured using technically feasible remanufacturing strategy.     

Protecting terrestrial ecosystems and the climate through a global carbon market

Protecting terrestrial ecosystems through international environmental laws requires the development of economic mechanisms that value the Earth's natural systems. The major international treaties to address ecosystem protection lack meaningful binding obligations and the requisite financial instruments to affect large-scale conservation. The Kyoto Protocol's emissions-trading framework creates economic incentives for nations to reduce greenhouse-gas (GHG) emissions cost effectively. Incorporating GHG impacts from land-use activities into this system would create a market for an important ecosystem service provided by forests and agricultural lands: sequestration of atmospheric carbon. This would spur conservation efforts while reducing the 20% of anthropogenic CO(2) emissions produced by land-use change, particularly tropical deforestation. The Kyoto negotiations surrounding land-use activities have been hampered by a lack of robust carbon inventory data. Moreover, the Protocol's provisions agreed to in Kyoto made it difficult to incorporate carbon-sequestering land-use activities into the emissions-trading framework without undermining the atmospheric GHG reductions contemplated in the treaty. Subsequent negotiations since 1997 failed to produce a crediting system that provides meaningful incentives for enhanced carbon sequestration. Notably, credit for reducing rates of tropical deforestation was explicitly excluded from the Protocol. Ultimately, an effective GHG emissions-trading framework will require full carbon accounting for all emissions and sequestration from terrestrial ecosystems. Improved inventory systems and capacity building for developing nations will, therefore, be necessary.     

Global health and climate change: moving from denial and catastrophic fatalism to positive action

The health effects of climate change have had relatively little attention from climate scientists and governments. Climate change will be a major threat to population health in the current century through its potential effects on communicable disease, heat stress, food and water security, extreme weather events, vulnerable shelter and population migration. This paper addresses three health-sector strategies to manage the health effects of climate change-promotion of mitigation, tackling the pathways that lead to ill-health and strengthening health systems. Mitigation of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is affordable, and low-carbon technologies are available now or will be in the near future. Pathways to ill-health can be managed through better information, poverty reduction, technological innovation, social and cultural change and greater coordination of national and international institutions. Strengthening health systems requires increased investment in order to provide effective public health responses to climate-induced threats to health, equitable treatment of illness, promotion of low-carbon lifestyles and renewable energy solutions within health facilities. Mitigation and adaptation strategies will produce substantial benefits for health, such as reductions in obesity and heart disease, diabetes, stress and depression, pneumonia and asthma, as well as potential cost savings within the health sector. The case for mitigating climate change by reducing GHGs is overwhelming. The need to build population resilience to the global health threat from already unavoidable climate change is real and urgent. Action must not be delayed by contrarians, nor by catastrophic fatalists who say it is all too late.     

Cement and carbon emissions

Because of its low cost, its ease of use and relative robustness to misuse, its versatility, and its local availability, concrete is by far the most widely used building material in the world today. Intrinsically, concrete has a very low energy and carbon footprint compared to most other materials. However, the volume of Portland cement required for concrete construction makes the cement industry a large emitter of CO₂. The International Energy Agency recently proposed a global CO₂ reduction plan. This plan has three main elements: long term CO₂ targets, a sectorial approach based on the lowest cost to society, and technology roadmaps that demonstrate the means to achieve the CO₂ reductions. For the cement industry, this plan calls for a reduction in CO₂ emissions from 2 Gt in 2007 to 1.55 Gt in 2050, while over the same period cement production is projected to increase by about 50 %. The authors of the cement industry roadmap point out that the extrapolation of existing technologies (fuel efficiency, alternative fuels and biomass, and clinker substitution) will only take us half the way towards these goals. According to the roadmap, the industry will have to rely on costly and unproven carbon capture and storage technologies for the other half of the required reduction. This will result in significant additional costs for society. Most of the CO₂ footprint of cement is due to the decarbonation of limestone during the clinkering process. Designing new clinkers that require less limestone is one means to significantly reduce the CO₂ footprint of cement and concrete. A new class of clinkers described in this paper can reduce CO₂ emissions by 20 to 30 % when compared to the manufacture of traditional PC Clinker.     

Long-term effects of structural changes in the Brazilian electricity matrix

The Brazilian 2015 Intended Nationally Determined Contribution proposes a reduction of 43% in its greenhouse gas emissions by 2030, compared to its 2005 emissions. In terms of the contribution of the Brazilian electrical sector to achieve this target, it commits to increase the use of renewable energy sources, other than hydroelectricity, and an efficiency gain of 10% by 2030. Considering these targets, this paper estimates the economic and CO₂ emissions effects of such propositions using input–output analysis. The estimates are based on eight different future electricity matrices scenarios (2030 and 2050) developed by specialists within the Energy Scenarios Platform. On the one hand, achieving cleaner electrical production requires large investments. On the other hand, a reorganization of the sector leading to increased use of renewable energy sources produces GDP and employment growth. The results show that the net effects are positive in the medium and long run. Brazilian GDP growth may range from 0.61 to 1.24% per year by 2030 and from 0.66 to 1.26% per year by 2050, and total labor demand may reach 630 thousand new employees in 2030 and 685 thousand jobs in 2050. Regarding the reduction of CO\(_2\) emissions, a maximum saving of 4 million tons by 2030 and 1 million tons by 2050 is expected. Therefore, according to the scenarios analyzed, although investing in renewable electrical sources demands more investment, their operational costs are lower, such that the extra expending is more than offset. Hence, the economic benefits from such changes more than compensate the costs of investing in such efforts.     

Cumulative carbon emissions, emissions floors and short-term rates of warming: implications for policy

A number of recent studies have found a strong link between peak human-induced global warming and cumulative carbon emissions from the start of the industrial revolution, while the link to emissions over shorter periods or in the years 2020 or 2050 is generally weaker. However, cumulative targets appear to conflict with the concept of a 'floor' in emissions caused by sectors such as food production. Here, we show that the introduction of emissions floors does not reduce the importance of cumulative emissions, but may make some warming targets unachievable. For pathways that give a most likely warming up to about 4°C, cumulative emissions from pre-industrial times to year 2200 correlate strongly with most likely resultant peak warming regardless of the shape of emissions floors used, providing a more natural long-term policy horizon than 2050 or 2100. The maximum rate of CO(2)-induced warming, which will affect the feasibility and cost of adapting to climate change, is not determined by cumulative emissions but is tightly aligned with peak rates of emissions. Hence, cumulative carbon emissions to 2200 and peak emission rates could provide a clear and simple framework for CO(2) mitigation policy.     

Cost-effective GHG mitigation strategies for Western Australia’s housing sector: a life cycle management approach

The demand of natural resources for Western Australia’s (WA) housing sector is increasing due to economic and population growth, which will be a challenging task for Australia to achieve its GHG reduction target. This paper has assessed possible GHG mitigation options for Western Australia’s houses, where energy-intensive clay brick walls and single-glazed windows are currently being used. A life cycle management framework has been used to determine cost-effective GHG emissions mitigation strategies. This framework integrates life cycle assessment tool, energy rating tool (AccuRate), and life cycle cost (LCC) analysis in order to ascertain environmentally and economically viable alternative building envelop for constructing a house in WA. The results show that the house made of cast in situ sandwich walls, recycled core materials and double-glazed windows, and equipped with solar energy system for electricity and water heating is the best option. This option has life cycle GHG emissions and LCC saving potentials of 7 and 20 %, respectively.     

Electricity generation: options for reduction in carbon emissions

Historically, the bulk production of electricity has been achieved by burning fossil fuels, with unavoidable gaseous emissions, including large quantities of carbon dioxide: an average-sized modern coal-burning power station is responsible for more than 10 Mt of CO(2) each year. This paper details typical emissions from present-day power stations and discusses the options for their reduction. Acknowledging that the cuts achieved in the past decade in the UK CO(2) emissions have been achieved largely by fuel switching, the remaining possibilities offered by this method are discussed. Switching to less-polluting fossil fuels will achieve some measure of reduction, but the basic problem of CO(2) emissions continues. Of the alternatives to fossil fuels, only nuclear power represents a zero-carbon large-scale energy source. Unfortunately, public concerns over safety and radioactive waste have still to be assuaged. Other approaches include the application of improved combustion technology, the removal of harmful gases from power-station flues and the use of waste heat to improve overall power-station efficiency. These all have a part to play, but many consider our best hope for emissions reduction to be the use of renewable energy. The main renewable energy contenders are assessed in this paper and realistic estimates of the contribution that each could provide are indicated. It appears that, in the time-scale envisaged by planners for reduction in CO(2) emission, in many countries renewable energy will be unlikely to deliver. At the same time, it is worth commenting that, again in many countries, the level of penetration of renewable energy will fall short of the present somewhat optimistic targets. Of renewable options, wind energy could be used in the short to medium term to cover for thermal plant closures, but for wind energy to be successful, the network will have to be modified to cope with wind's intermittent nature. Globally, hydroelectricity is currently the largest developed source of renewable electricity, but future large-scale projects will probably be limited to the less-developed world: the best schemes in the developed countries have already been exploited. Wave and tidal can be looked on as medium- to long-term generators of electricity, as their respective industries are not as mature as competing renewable resources. Municipal solid-waste combustion and landfill gas technologies can also be seen as short term, as can their rural equivalents, agriculture and forestry waste. Any widespread exploitation of renewable energy will depend on being able to transmit the energy from source to point of use, so the implications for the electrical network from the penetration of substantial levels of renewable energy are presented. Effective management of renewable energy installations will require technical assessment of the range of exploitation strategies, to compare local production of, say, hydrogen and the more traditional transmission of electricity. Such resources will have to compete with others in any national, or grid, system and detailed economic analysis will be necessary to determine the deployment that best fits the trading regime under which the energy will be sold. Consideration will also be necessary to determine how best to control the introduction of this radically new resource such that it does not attract punitive cost overheads until it is mature enough to cope. Finally, it is inescapable that nuclear power is a proven technology that could take its place in any future generation portfolio. Unfortunately, suspicion and mistrust surround waste management and radioactivity release. Unless this is overcome, the lack of confidence engendered by this public mistrust may result in few, if any, new nuclear power stations being built. In the event of that decision, it is difficult to see how CO(2) levels can be significantly reduced: the irony is that nuclear energy may emerge as environmentally essential.     

Introduction of mechanistic-empirical pavement design into pavement carbon footprint analysis

Transportation authorities and industrial organisations are currently faced with the need to incorporate greenhouse gas (GHG) impacts into pavement designs. GHG emissions have been evaluated for individual projects with unique external environments. These estimates cannot be applied to future projects with different external environments. This paper presents a GHG estimation method to assist in low-carbon design for future pavement construction. The method uses mechanistic-empirical pavement design guide to create comparable structures with different pavement techniques, traffic volumes, climate conditions, etc. The method is illustrated using the Maryland Intercounty Connector (ICC) project, which was paved with hot mix asphalt. The results show that if the ICC’s asphalt base layer was paved with foam stabilised base, GHG emissions would be reduced by up to 18.8 thousand metric tons, an equivalent to 56.5% of the total pavement construction emissions. The GHG savings would generate $111,200 of carbon offsets, which compensate approximately 5.7% of the pavement costs.     

Greenhouse gases emissions from waste management practices using Life Cycle Inventory model

When exploring the correlation between municipal solid waste management and green house gas emission, the volume and physical composition of the waste matter must be taken into account. Due to differences in local environments and lifestyles the quantity and composition of waste often vary. This leads to differences in waste treatment methods and causes different volumes of greenhouse gases (GHGs), highlighting the need for local research. In this study the Life Cycle Inventory method was used with global warming indicator GHGs as the variables. By quantifying the data and adopting a region-based approach, this created a model of household MSWM in Taipei City, a metropolitan region in Taiwan. To allow analysis and comparison a compensatory system was then added to expand the system boundary. The results of the analysis indicated that out of all the solid waste management sub-models for a function unit, recycling was the most effective method for reducing GHG emissions while using kitchen food waste as swine feeding resulted in the most GHG emissions. As for the impact of waste collection vehicles on emissions, if the efficiency of transportation could be improved and energy consumption reduced, this will help solid waste management to achieve its goal of reducing GHG emissions.     

Possibilities and sustainability of “biomass for power” solutions in the case of a coal-based power utility

This paper investigates the possibilities and the sustainability of “biomass for power” solutions on a real power system. The case example is JP Elektroprivreda BiH d.d.—Sarajevo (EPBiH), a typical conventional coal-based power utility operating in the region of South East Europe. Biomass use is one of the solutions considered in EPBiH as a means of increasing shares of renewable energy sources (RES) in final energy production and reducing CO₂ emissions. This ultimately is a requirement for all conventional coal-based power utilities on track to meet their greenhouse gas (GHG) cut targets by 2050. The paper offers a discussion of possible options as a function of sustainability principles, considering environmental, economic and social aspects of biomass use. In the case of EPBiH, the most beneficial would be waste woody biomass and energy crop co-firing on existing coal-based power plants, as suggested by biomass market analyses and associated technological studies. To assess the sustainability of the different biomass co-firing options, a multicriteria sustainability assessment (MSA) and single criteria analysis (SCA) were used. Four different options were considered, based on different ratios of biomass for co-firing: 0 wt%-reference case, and 5, 7 and 10 wt% of biomass. Both the MSA and the SCA confirmed that the option with the highest share of biomass is the most preferable one for the considered case. In addition to that, the CO₂ parameter proved to be a key sustainability indicator, effecting the most decision making with regard to preference of options from the point of sustainability. Following up on the results of the analyses, the long-term projection of biomass use in EPBiH has shown an increase in biomass utilization of up to 450,000 t/y in 2030 and beyond, with associated CO₂ cuts of up to 395,000 t/y. This resulted in a 4 % CO₂ cut achieved with biomass co-firing, compared to the 1990 CO₂ emission level. It should be noted that the proposed assessment model for biomass use may be applied to any conventional coal-based power utility as an option in contributing to meeting specific CO₂ cut targets, provided that the set of input data is available and reliable.     

Multi-criteria decision analysis for prospective sustainability assessment of alternative technologies and fuels for individual motorized transport

Reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the transport sector is one of the biggest challenges in the German energy transition. Furthermore, sustainable development does not stop with reducing GHG emissions. Other environmental, social and economic aspects should not be neglected. Thus, here a comprehensive sustainability assessment for passenger vehicles is conducted for 2020 and 2050. The discussed options are an internal combustion engine vehicle (ICEV) fuelled with synthetic biofuel and fossil gasoline, a battery electric vehicle (BEV) with electricity from wind power and electricity mix Germany and a fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV) with hydrogen from wind power. The life cycle-based assessment entails 13 environmental indicators, one economic and one social indicator. For integrated consideration of the different indicators, the MCDA method Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS) is chosen. For the assessment, a consistent assessment framework, i.e. background scenario and system boundaries, and a detailed modelling of vehicle production, fuel supply and vehicle use are the cornerstones. The BEV with wind power is the most sustainable option in 2020 as well as in 2050. While in 2020, the second rank is taken by the ICEV with synthetic biofuel from straw and the last rank by the FCEV, in 2050 the FCEV is the runner-up. With the help of MCDA, transparent and structured guidance for decision makers in terms of sustainability assessment of motorized transport options is provided.

Graphical abstract

     

Perspectives for the production of bioethanol from wood and straw in Austria: technical, economic, and ecological aspects

Bioethanol produced from lignocellulosic resources is a promising candidate for the replacement of fossil fuels. In this study, we aim to determine the perspectives to produce lignocellulosic ethanol in Austria. Technical, environmental and economic aspects are being considered. Thirteen biotechnological production concepts using the raw materials straw and softwood were established and simulated with the steady state flowsheeting software IPSEpro. Bioethanol production cost and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions for each system were calculated based on mass and energy balances obtained from process simulation. The emission of GHGs along the entire bioethanol process chain (“from well to wheel”) are compared to two reference systems producing the same amounts of by-products. In all concepts, process heat and considerable amounts of the by-products electricity, heat, pellets, C5 molasses, or biomethane could be obtained from residual biomass. Compared to a reference system driven by fossil energy, GHG emissions can be reduced by up to 76%. The production cost of ethanol was found to between 0.66?€ and 0.94?€ per liter of gasoline equivalent. The type and amount of by-product influence technical, economic, and environmental performance significantly. Converting all straw and softwood available in Austria to ethanol would result in an annual production of 340?kt.