How carbon credits could drive the emergence of renewable energies

The shift to renewable energy options and low-carbon technologies, in response to the concerns over energy security and climate change, is proceeding more slowly than many would like. The usual argument against rapid deployment of new technologies is the costs imposed on the economy, commonly interpreted in terms of upfront costs to be borne or involving large cash transfers to fund, for example, efforts to preserve rainforests. In this contribution I argue that such a perspective provides a continuing barrier to taking effective action, whereas a perspective based on creation and use of carbon credits provides a means of avoiding the shock of abrupt industrial change. Carbon credits granted for bona fide carbon load reductions could be created through private initiative, for example by merchant banks, to constitute a market that will complement regulatory-based initiatives such as national emissions trading systems. This is not a novel idea; indeed it is the way that capitalism has funded every major change, including the Industrial Revolution, through the creation of credit. The emergence of a global carbon credit economy is likely to precede a global regulatory system governing climate change and will doubtless help to stimulate the emergence of such a global system.     

A new tailored scheme for the support of renewable energies in developing countries

Historically the promotion of renewable energy technologies in isolated areas has involved international donors or governments subsidising the initial capital investment. This paper proposes an alternative support mechanism for remote villages based on the generation of renewable electricity. This communication presents an evaluation of the Renewable Energy Premium Tariff (RPT) scheme, a locally adapted variation of the Feed-in Tariff tailored for decentralised grids of developing countries. The RPT scheme stimulates the deployment of renewable energy technologies by paying for renewable electricity generated. A good-quality performance is secured since the support is given based on the electricity produced by renewables, not for the initial capital investment.     

A review of the potential of renewable energy sources for the State of Jammu and Kashmir (India)

The future economic development trajectory for India is likely to result in rapid and accelerated growth in energy demand, with expected shortages. Many of its current policies and strategies are aimed at the improvement and possible maximization of energy production from the renewable sector. It is also clear that while energy-conservation and energy-efficiency can make an important contribution in the national energy strategy, renewable energies will be essential to the solution and are likely to play an increasingly important role for the growth of grid power, providing energy access, reducing consumption of fossil fuels, and helping India pursue its low carbon progressive pathway. However, most of the states in India, like the northernmost State of Jammu and Kashmir (J&K), have experienced an energy crisis over a sustained period of time. As India intends to be one of the emerging powers of the 21st century, it has to embark upon with these pressing issues in a more sustainable manner and accordingly initiate various renewable energy projects within these states. This paper will provide a broad-spectrum view about the energy situation within J&K and will highlight the current policies along with future strategies for the optimal utilization of renewable energy resources.     

Long-term scenarios and strategies for the deployment of renewable energies in Germany

The transformation of the energy supply in Germany (the “Energiewende”) as described in the German Federal government’s ‘Energy Concept’ (Energiekonzept, 2010) is based on a political consensus about long-term targets for energy efficiency and renewable energies. The aim of this article is to present a consistent scenario for this transformation process reflecting the long-term implementation of renewable energies and the possible future structure of the German energy system as a whole. Structural and economic effects of this development are derived and discussed. It summarizes results of scenario analyses done by the department of Systems Analysis and Technology Assessment of the German Aerospace Center as part of a three-year research project for the German Federal Ministry for the Environment. The underlying study provides a detailed data base reflecting a long-term roadmap for the energy system transformation in Germany. The scenarios show that the policy targets are consistent and can be achieved, if appropriate policy measures are to be implemented. The economic analysis shows the amount of investments and the strong market dynamics required for new generation technologies but also the huge economic benefits that can result from this development path in terms of fuel cost savings and lower fuel imports.     

The role of energy efficiency and renewable energies in the future world energy market

The world population is rising rapidly, notably in the developing countries. Historical trends suggest that increased annual energy use per capita is a good surrogate for the standard of living factors which promote a decrease in population growth rate. If these trends continue, the stabilization of the world's population will require the increased use of all sources of energy as cheap oil and gas are depleted. The improved efficiency of energy use and renewable energy sources will be essential to stabilizing population, while providing a decent standard all over the world.     

Comment upon “Public goods and private interests: understanding non-residential demand for green power”

This article presents a critique of the recent contribution to Energy Policy (November 2001) by Wiser, Fowlie and Holt, entitled, “Public goods and private interests: understanding non-residential demand for green power”. In their article, the aforementioned authors explore the proposition that business and other organisations adopt green power, and will pay even a premium for it, because of what the authors describe as “altruism”. According to the article below, although Wiser et al. address an important problem and raise interesting issues, their attempt at challenging received theory and existing paradigms is undermined by the manner in which their research was undertaken. Deficiencies arise with regard to survey techniques, data preparation, model specification, and statistical methods. The deficiencies in their research methods cast doubt upon their findings, facilitating alternative interpretations of their empiricism.     

A study of the role played by renewable energies in China's sustainable energy supply

This paper first provides an overview of the context of renewable energy development in China, including the country's recent renewable energy legislation. Further, it summarizes the current status of renewable energy development and the role it plays in the national energy supply. Next it introduces the national indicative targets for renewable energies in 2010 and 2020, and conducts a long term scenario of the role of renewable energies in China's energy system transition till 2050. It discusses the main risks involved in China's renewable energy development, and proposes some policy measures for risk management.     

Global analysis of the techno-economic potential of renewable energy hybrid systems on small islands

Globally, small islands below 100,000 inhabitants represent a large number of diesel based mini-grids. With volatile fossil fuel costs which are most likely to increase in the long-run and competitive renewable energy technologies the introduction of such sustainable power generation system seems a viable and environmental friendly option. Nevertheless the implementation of renewable energies on small islands is quite low based on high transaction costs and missing knowledge according to the market potential.Our work provides a global overview on the small island landscape showing the respective population, economic activity, energy demand, and fuel costs for almost 1800 islands with approximately 20 million inhabitants currently supplied by 15 GW of diesel plants. Based on these parameters a detailed techno-economic assessment of the potential integration of solar PV, wind power, and battery storage into the power supply system was performed for each island. The focus on solar and wind was set due to the lack of data on hydro and geothermal potential for a global island study. It revealed that almost 7.5 GW of photovoltaic and 14 GW of wind power could be economically installed and operated on these islands reducing the GHG-emissions and fuel consumption by approximately 50%. In total numbers more than 20 million tons of GHG emissions can be reduced by avoiding the burning of 7.8 billion liters of diesel per year. Cost savings of around 9 USDct/kWh occur on average by implementing these capacities combined with 5.8 GWh of battery storage. This detailed techno-economic evaluation of renewable energies enables policy makers and investors to facilitate the implementation of clean energy supply systems on small islands. To accelerate the implementation of this enormous potential we give specific policy recommendations such as the introduction of proper regulations.     

A note on the formation of “salt-finger” and “diffusive” interfaces in three-component systems

Thin density interfaces determine the fluxes of heat or solute through doubly-diffusive convection. Vertical transports are achieved by either “salt finger” convection or molecular diffusion. The influence of a third diffusing property upon the type of interface formed at an initial density discontinuity is explored here. There may be a strong dependence upon molecular diffusivities, and some interfaces are observed to have a complicated structure.     

Collateral effects of renewable energies deployment in Spain: Impact on thermal power plants performance and management

The quest for renewable energy sources has been strong in Spain for a couple of decades, and has produced outstanding results, notably in windpower. Solar technologies also had a prompt response to the promoting legislation of 2007. This evolution has generated side effects in the electricity generation system as a whole, and all this phenomenology is analysed in this paper under the consideration of the three objectives theoretically guiding electricity policy nowadays: security of supply (at macro and micro level), environmental quality, and economic competitiveness. The analysis points out some unbalance among the objectives, which can evolve to a scenario where back-up power is going to be a critical point for the stability of the system. Such a back-up service will surely be provided by gas-fired combined cycles (GFCC). The estimated projections of the generation system show that the required back-up power will grow about 8–9 GW by year 2020, for complying with the objective of attaining a share of 40% renewable electricity. However, collateral effects as the decline in the load factor of GFCC, as well as a reduction in spot price of electricity, can cast many doubts about the feasibility to reach that back-up power level.     

Dissociation of H2S in non-equilibrium gliding arc “tornado” discharge

The process of hydrogen sulfide, H₂S, dissociation was studied in a non-equilibrium gliding arc “tornado” (GAT) plasma discharge. Utilizing GAT ensured uniform H₂S gas treatment in the reactor. In addition, it created a low temperature zone near the cylindrical wall of the reactor, while maintaining a high temperature zone near the reactor axis. An energy cost of 1.2 eV per H₂ molecule was achieved in this plasma system at atmospheric pressure. These results are particularly important for the oil industry, which consumes large amounts of hydrogen in oil hydro-treatment, and for gas industry because of the high H₂S content in “sour” gas.     

A dynamic linear programming approach to market allocation of renewable resources in the italian energy system: The case of solar thermal and biogas technologies

In Italy solar thermal energy and energy from biogas are two possible means of reducing dependence on energy imports. Using a multiperiod LP model (MARKAL) the authors assessed the likely potential of both technologies under various circumstances. The study covered the period 1980–2005, in five segments of five years. It focused only on the subsystem of the energy end-uses which can be substituted for by solar thermal and biogas technologies. The overall non-renewable sources which can be saved in 20 years by these technologies total 450 PJ (1 PJ = 10^{1 5} J) if the fuel prices rise at 0 per cent average annual, 1450 PJ if the fuel prices rise at 4.2 per cent average annual, 1860 PJ if the fuel prices rise at 7.2 per cent average annual and 3780 PJ if the fuel prices rise at 15 per cent average annual. However the most competitive technologies appear to be solar water heaters used mainly in the private and commercial sectors and biogas systems used mainly in the agricultural sector. The study was carried out by APRE under ENEA (formerly CNEN) contract and was intended to serve as an analytical basis for establishing an overall development and demonstration strategy for end-use renewable technologies in Italy.     

Thermal performance of “still on roof” system

This paper presents an analysis of periodic heat flux through a roof, on which a solar still has been placed. It is seen that on a typical hot day in Delhi, for high reflectivity of the bottom of the basin (on account of deposits or otherwise) the daily heat flux in the room gets reduced by 40% and the production of distilled water is 0.6 kg/m² day; the produced swings in the heat flux also get reduced in magnitude. For a typical cold day in Delhi, if a black dye is mixed with basin water the daily heat flux in the room increases by a factor of two and the yield of the distillate becomes 5.0 kg/m² day.     

“Energy Tower” combined with pumped storage and desalination: Optimal design and analysis

The “Energy Tower” (ET) is a power plant project which uses hot dry air and seawater to produce electricity. An optimized design of a system that is a combination of an ET, pumped storage and seawater desalination plant is considered. A model set covering each subsystem, and results of the optimized design for a project in the area of Eilat are presented. The additional benefit from combining the systems comes from an efficient use of the energy in the brine water coming from the desalination process, and from using pumped storage in an unconventional way. The benefits of the combined system lead to an increase of 14% in the annual net profit, compared to the sum of profits from optimally designed stand-alone systems.     

Modelling and experimentation of the “Shell” dryer

The “Shell” dryer is an African solar food dryer using natural convection. Its design has been defined by users, in function of local working conditions and of its easy using. But it is necessary for the best behaviour of this dryer to optimize its air flow section design. We present here a theoretical study of a “rustic” process, through mathematical modelisation tools.     

Study of the Spanish R&D&I Plan 2004–2007 in energy

This paper aims to analyze the public funds transferred to energy projects granted by the Department of Research in the frame of the Spanish Scientific Research, Development and Technological Innovation (R&D&I) Plan 2004–2007. The subjects of the projects granted for R&D activities in incipient technologies and the thematic priorities in energy research covered by the annual calls for proposals are analyzed. In addition, the amount of funds transferred to R&D in energy compared to the rest of research activities promoted by the Spanish Government, the territorial distribution of the research centres granted, the distribution of funds in relation to the technologies granted and the Spanish research centres more active in the diverse energy research areas are presented.     

A further study on the theory of “falling ponds”

The theory of “falling pond” is investigated and the stability requirements of such ponds are discussed. Based on the possible maximum temperature gradients, curves determining the regions of operation of stable falling solar ponds are presented. Also the effects of the thickness of the non-convecting layer and the bottom temperature on the stability of such ponds are discussed. Comparison between a MgCl₂ and NaCl falling solar pond is made and typical profiles for concentration are presented.     

Assessment of an “Energy Tower” potential in Australia using a mathematical model and GIS

“Energy Tower” is a technology for producing renewable and clean electricity by means of cooling hot and dry air, which is continuously supplied to arid lands. We assess the potential of an Energy Tower by incorporating topographic and meteorological parameters into a computational model, providing evaluations for the net power production and the electricity production cost. We formulate a highly simplified model for the Energy Tower’s flow, setup and process a spatial dataset of topographic and Meteorological upper air parameters. The model was applied to the Australian continent. A model simulation of one annual cycle enabled the ranking and selection of promising sites. The highest potential for energy towers is in the Port Hedland region, where favorable meteorological and topographic conditions would result in high average net power (≈370 ± 160 MW), potentially providing the electricity needs of 0.5 million people, for an economically competitive costs (3.5 ¢kWh).     

Mesoscale modeling of a “Dunkelflaute” event

In the near future, wind and solar generation are projected to play an increasingly important role in Europe's energy sector. With such fast‐growing renewable energy development, the presence of simultaneous calm wind and overcast conditions could cause significant shortfalls in production with potentially serious consequences for system operators. Such events are sometimes dubbed “Dunkelflaute” events and have occurred several times in recent history. The capabilities of contemporary mesoscale models to reliably simulate and/or forecast a Dunkelflaute event are not known in the literature. In this paper, a Dunkelflaute event near the coast of Belgium is simulated utilizing the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model. Comprehensive validation using measured power production data and diverse sets of meteorological data (e.g., floating lidars, radiosondes, and weather stations) indicates the potential of WRF to reproduce and forecast the boundary layer evolution during the event. Extensive sensitivity experiments with respect to grid‐size, wind farm parameterization, and forcing datasets provide further insights on the reliability of the WRF model in capturing the Dunkelflaute event.