Extension of the internal/external frame of reference model of self-concept formation: Importance of native and nonnative languages for Chinese students.

The authors extended the internal/external frame of reference (I/E) model of self-concept formation by relating Chinese, English, and math achievement to Chinese, English, and math self-concepts in a 5-year longitudinal study based on a large (N?=?9,482) representative sample of Hong Kong high school students. Tests of the I/E model are typically based on math and English constructs for a single wave of data in Western countries, This study involved testing its cross-cultural generalizability to a non-Western country, including native and normative languages, as well as mathematics, and evaluating longitudinal effects over a 5-year period starting shortly before the beginning of high school. In support of the extended I/E model, (a) math, English, and Chinese achievements were highly correlated, whereas math, English, and Chinese self-concepts were nearly uncorrelated; (b) math, English, and Chinese achievements each had positive effects on the matching self-concept domain but negative effects on nonmatching domains (e.g., English achievement had a positive effect on English self-concept but negative effects on math and Chinese self-concepts); and (c) these results were very stable over time. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A multifaceted academic self-concept: Its hierarchical structure and its relation to academic achievement.

Academic self-concept, originally posited by Shavelson as a single higher-order facet, was found by Marsh and Shavelson to comprise at least 2 higher-order academic facets (verbal and math). Marsh developed the internal/external (I/E) frame of reference model to account for the extreme separation of math and verbal self-concepts and their relations to math and verbal achievements. In our investigation, students completed the academic self-concept scales from 3 instruments that were the basis of 2 studies. In the 1st study, the 2 higher-order academic factors posited by Marsh and Shavelson fit the data substantially better than did a single higher order facet. In subsequent discussion, the Marsh/Shavelson model is more clearly defined, and directions for further research are identified. The 2nd study provided further support for the I/E frame of reference model in that (a) verbal and math self-concepts were nearly uncorrelated, (b) verbal achievement positively affected verbal self-concept but negatively affected math self-concept (i.e., higher verbal skills led to lower math self-concepts), (c) math achievement positively affected math self-concept but negatively affected verbal self-concept, and (d) the results were consistent for each of 3 self-concept instruments. Both studies demonstrate that in further research at least verbal and math self-concepts, rather than a single general facet of academic self-concepts, should be considered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Big-Fish--Little-Pond effect on academic self-concept: A cross-cultural (26-country) test of the negative effects of academically selective schools.

Academically selective schools are intended to affect academic self-concept positively, but theoretical and empirical research demonstrates that the effects are negative. The big-fish--little-pond effect (BFLPE), an application of social comparison theory to educational settings, posits that a student will have a lower academic self-concept in an academically selective school than in a nonselective school. This study, the largest cross-cultural study of the BFLPE ever undertaken, tested theoretical predictions for nationally representative samples of approximately 4,000 15-year-olds from each of 26 countries (N=103,558) who completed the same self-concept instrument and achievement tests. Consistent with the BFLPE, the effects of school-average achievement were negative in all 26 countries (M beta=-.20, SD=.08), demonstrating the BFLPE's cross-cultural generalizability. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Tests of the internal/external frames of reference model with subject-specific academic self-efficacy and frame-specific academic self-concepts.

H. W. Marsh's (1986) internal/external (I/E) frames of reference model posits that students' self-concepts result from simultaneous comparison of their competence to their peers' ability and their ability in other areas. The I/E model failed to receive clear support with (a) subject-specific self-efficacy and (b) frame-specific self-concepts. Frame-specific self-concepts were assessed by asking students to report their self-perceived capability in direct reference to the internal and external comparison frames. Contrary to the I/E model's assumptions, students' verbal and math self-concepts based on the internal comparison were positively correlated; achievement in one area negatively influenced both internal and external comparison-based self-concepts in the other area; and verbal and math self-concepts were positively correlated. Interestingly, most of the model's predictions were confirmed when the classical I/E model structure was replicated, demonstrating that the hypothesized relations among self and achievement factors can be achieved without satisfying the model's theoretical provisions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Math, verbal, and general academic self-concept: The internal/external frame of reference model and gender differences in self-concept structure.

Tested predictions from H. W. Marsh's (see record 1987-17104-001) internal/external (I/E) frame of reference model (measuring cognitive dimensions of math and verbal self-concepts [S-Cs]), and gender differences in the structure of academic S-C were examined through path analyses of data from 231 Norwegian 6th-grade students (117 boys and 114 girls). Math and verbal S-Cs on a cognitive level were defined as success expectations on defined tasks. No strong support was found for the I/E model: Math and verbal S-Cs were highly correlated, and no significant negative direct effects were found of verbal achievement on math S-C or of math achievement on verbal S-C for boys, although a negative direct effect of verbal achievement on math S-C was found for girls. The results differed from previous research measuring evaluative dimensions of math and verbal S-Cs, suggesting either remarkable cultural differences or that academic S-Cs are more complex than has been assumed. The structure of S-C differed for boys and girls; math and verbal S-Cs related differently to general academic S-C. The gender differences are discussed in terms of sex stereotypes. This study has implications for research on academic S-C and gender differences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Influences of internal and external frames of reference on the formation of math and English self-concepts.

In a large nationally representative sample (N?=?14,825 students, 1,015 high schools) math and English self-concepts were: (a) uncorrelated despite a substantial correlation between math and English test scores; (b) influenced by internal and external frames of reference; and (c) negatively affected by school-average achievement. As posited by the internal/external frame-of-reference model, better math skills led to much higher math self-concepts but slightly lower English self-concepts, whereas better English skills led to much higher English self-concepts but slightly lower math self-concepts. School-average achievement negatively affected academic self-concept; equally able students had higher academic self-concepts in schools with lower school-average achievements. This school context effect was also content specific; school-average math achievement negatively affected only math self-concept, and school-average English achievement negatively affected only English self-concept. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Domain Specificity of Trilingual Teachers' Verbal Self-Concepts.

Teachers from Hong Kong (N=437) responded to English, math, Cantonese, and Mandarin self-concept items. Confirmatory factor analysis found good support for the distinction of 4 domain-specific self-concepts. English self-concept had a low correlation with Mandarin self-concept (r = .09) and a negative correlation with Cantonese self-concept (r = -.19). Cantonese and Mandarin, which presumably pertain to a single Chinese language domain, were also negatively correlated (r = -.11). These very low correlations did not allow the 3 language constructs to form a single verbal factor. The results challenge the assumption of a single verbal self-concept construct for speakers of multiple languages. For trilinguals, the verbal self-concept constructs can be very distinct and unrelated to each other. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Longitudinal multilevel models of the big-fish-little-pond effect on academic self-concept: Counterbalancing contrast and reflected-glory effects in Hong Kong schools.

Longitudinal multilevel path models (7,997 students, 44 high schools, 4 years) evaluated effects of school-average achievement and perceived school status on academic self-concept in Hong Kong, which has a collectivist culture with a highly achievement-segregated high school system. Consistent with a priori predictions based on the big-fish-little-pond effect (BFLPE), higher school-average achievements led to lower academic self-concepts (contrast effect), whereas higher perceived school status had a counterbalancing positive effect on self-concept (reflected-glory, assimilation effect). The negative BFLPE is the net effect of counterbalancing influences, stronger negative contrast effects, and weaker positive assimilation effects so that controlling perceived school status led to purer—and even more negative— contrast effects. Attending a school where school-average achievement is high simultaneously resulted in a more demanding basis of comparison for one's own accomplishments (the stronger negative contrast effect) and a source of pride (the weaker positive assimilation effect), (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Tracking, grading, and student motivation: Using group composition and status to predict self-concept and interest in ninth-grade mathematics.

Assigning students to different classes on the basis of their achievement levels (tracking, streaming, or ability grouping) is an extensively used strategy with widely debated consequences. The authors developed a model of the effects of tracking on self-concept and interest that integrates the opposing predictions of "assimilation" and "contrast" effects, which specifies teacher-assigned grades as a major mediating variable, and tested it in 2 settings in which track level is clearly associated with different status-systematic tracking as a function of school type (Study 1, N = 14,341 German 9th-grade students) and separate streams within a comprehensive school system (Study 2, N = 3,243 German 9th-grade students). The results support predictions that students' math self-concept and math interest differ as a function of the achievement of their reference group, their own achievement, and their teacher-assigned grades. No systematic association between track level and math self-concept was found once individual student achievement, school-/stream-average achievement, and teacher-assigned grades were controlled. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Earning its place as a pan-human theory: Universality of the big-fish-little-pond effect across 41 culturally and economically diverse countries.

For more than 2 decades, big-fish-little-pond effect (BFLPE) research has demonstrated that students in high-ability classes and schools have lower academic self-concepts than their equally able counterparts in mixed-ability schools. However, cross-cultural BFLPE research has been limited to mostly developed and individualist countries. Using the Program for International Student Assessment database (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2005a, 2005b), the present investigation assessed the BFLPE in 41 culturally and economically diverse countries. In support of the BFLPE, the effect of school-average self-concept was negative for the total sample (effect size = ?.49), negative for each of the 41 countries considered separately, and statistically significant in 38 countries. In this large, culturally diverse sample of countries, the BFLPE was evident in both collectivist and individualist cultures and in economically developing and developed nations. Implications for BFLPE theory and educational practice are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Aggressive school troublemakers and victims: A longitudinal model examining the pivotal role of self-concept.

Aggressive Troublemaker (getting into physical fights, getting into trouble, being seen as a troublemaker, and being punished for getting into trouble) and Victim (being threatened with harm, not feeling safe) factors were related to 3 components of self-concept (General, Same Sex, and Opposite Sex) based on the large, nationally representative National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 database. At 8th-, 10th-, and 12th-grade levels, Troublemaker and Victim constructs were reasonably stable over time and moderately positively correlated (many students were both troublemakers and victims). The Victim factor was negatively correlated with self-concept and had negative effects on subsequent self-concept. Whereas the Troublemaker factor was also correlated somewhat negatively with self-concept, it had small positive effects on subsequent self-concept: Low self-concept may trigger troublemaking behavior in a possibly successful attempt to enhance subsequent self-concept. Although boys had higher Troublemaker and Victim scores than did girls, the effects of these constructs on subsequent self-concepts were similar for boys and girls. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social comparison and big-fish-little-pond effects on self-concept and other self-belief constructs: Role of generalized and specific others.

Two studies integrate the big-fish-little-pond effect (BFLPE; negative effects of class-average achievement on academic self-concept, ASC), which is based upon educational psychological research, with related social psychological research that is based on social comparison theory. Critical distinctions are the nature of the social comparison processes that are based on generalized-other (class- or school-average) or individual (target comparison classmate) comparisons, and the nature of self-belief constructs that invoke normative (social comparison) or absolute frames of reference. In a large cross-national study (26 countries; 3,851 schools; 103,558 students), school-average ability negatively affected ASC but had little effect on 4 other self-belief constructs that did not invoke social comparison processes. In Study 2 (64 classes; 764 students), 2 sources of social comparison information (class-average achievement and achievement of an individually selected target comparison classmate) each had distinct, substantial negative effects on agency self-beliefs that invoked social comparison processes but not on metacognitive responses that did not invoke these processes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On the benefit of dimensional comparisons.

People not only use social comparisons to evaluate their abilities, they also engage in dimensional comparisons, comparing their own achievement in different domains. Processes of dimensional comparison have contrasting effects on subject-specific self-concepts: downward dimensional comparisons result in higher self-concept in the intraindividually better domain, whereas upward dimensional comparisons result in lower self-concept in the intraindividually weaker domain. Two field studies and 1 experimental study were conducted to investigate whether the effects of downward or upward dimensional comparisons are stronger. In Study 1 (N = 319), downward dimensional comparisons proved to be stronger than upward dimensional comparisons. In Study 2 (N = 1349), the same pattern was found with reading test scores as well as grades as achievement indicators. In Study 3 (N = 81), the authors found larger effects for downward than for upward comparisons in both self-perceived competence and satisfaction with test outcomes in an experimental setting. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-esteem, academic self-concept, and achievement: How the learning environment moderates the dynamics of self-concept.

The authors examine the directionality of effects between global self-esteem, domain-specific academic self-concepts, and academic achievement. Special emphasis is placed on learning environments as potential moderators of the direction of these effects. According to the meritocracy principle presented here, so-called bottom-up effects (i.e., self-esteem is influenced by academic self-concept) are more pronounced in meritocratic learning environments than in ego-protective learning environments. This hypothesis was examined using a three-wave cross-lagged panel design with a large sample of 7th graders from East and West Germany, a total of 5,648 students who were tested shortly after German reunification. Reciprocal effects were found between self-esteem, academic self-concept, and academic achievement. In conformance with the meritocracy principle, support for bottom-up effects was stronger in the meritocratic learning environment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Factors underlying expectancies of success and achievement: The influential roles of need for cognition and general or specific self-concepts.

It has been assumed that task-specific self-concepts are more important than general self-concepts in determining expectancies of success and subsequent achievement. The authors argue here that the influence varies depending on need for cognition (NFC). Findings from Study 1 (N = 104) showed that expectancies of success in an academic task could be predicted from specific self-concept for individuals with a high NFC and from general self-concept for individuals with a low NFC. In Study 2 (N = 193), where cognitive load was manipulated, given a high cognitive load, only general self-concept was predictive of success expectancies, independent of NFC. In Study 3 (N = 197), given a high relevance of correct expectancy ratings, only specific self-concept was predictive of expectancies and actual achievement, independent of NFC. In Studies 4 and 5, the results from Study 1 concerning the prediction of expectancies (as well as achievement) reappeared in a physical and a social domain. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Positive self-concept: An equal opportunity construct.

This article examines the findings of self-concept studies and meta-analyses that examine the development of healthy self-concepts in children and adolescents with differing basic human characteristics and conditions. A theoretical model for self-concept is presented that purposes how healthy self-concepts develop and can be acquired. In light of the abundance of popular and professional literature devoted to methods for assessing and enhancing healthy self-concepts, we recommend that future self-concept research employ only scientifically defensible intervention methodology and employ dependent measures that are theoretically and technically sound. Future scholarship should go beyond the foundational issues that continue to resurface and should serve to guide researchers, educators, and psychologists toward addressing the next generation of questions about the establishment and Taintenance of positive self-concepts in children and adolescents. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Within-school social comparison: How students perceive the standing of their class predicts academic self-concept.

Results from prior research indicate that a student’s academic self-concept is negatively influenced by the achievement of others in his or her school (a frame of reference effect) and that this negative frame of reference effect is not or only slightly reduced by the quality, standing, or prestige of the track or school attended (a “reflected glory” effect). Going beyond prior studies, the present research used both between-school and within-school approaches to investigate frame of reference and reflected glory effects in education, incorporating students’ own perceptions of the standing of their school and class. Multilevel analyses were performed with data from 3 large-scale assessments with 4,810, 1,502, and 4,247 students, respectively. Findings from all 3 studies showed that, given comparable individual achievement, placement in high-achieving learning groups was associated with comparatively low academic self-concepts. However, students’ academic self-concept was not merely a reflection of their relative position within the class but also substantively associated with their individual and shared perceptions of the class’s standing. Moreover, the negative effects of being placed in high-achieving learning groups were weaker for high-achieving students. Overall, the studies support both educational and social psychology theorizing on social comparison. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Early reading-related skills and performance, reading self-concept, and the development of academic self-concept: A longitudinal study.

Relations between academic self-concept (ASC) and measures of reading-related performance and self-concept were examined in 60 beginning school children who, after 2 years of schooling, were assessed as having positive, negative, or typical ASCs. Data were collected soon after school entry, toward the end of Years 1 and 2, and during the middle of Year 3. Children with negative ASCs performed poorly on reading-related tasks and reported more negative reading self-concepts than did children with positive or typical ASCs. Reading was also highly predictive of negative and positive ASC group membership, but not of typical ASC group membership. Past studies of relations between ASC and achievement involving full-range samples of young children have underestimated the point in time when these factors become causally related to each other. The negative consequences of young children developing patterns of difficulty in learning to read are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)