When less is more in cognitive diagnosis: A rapid online method for diagnosing learner task-specific expertise.

Rapid cognitive diagnosis allows measuring current levels of learner domain-specific knowledge in online learning environments. Such measures are required for individualizing instructional support in real time, as students progress through a learning session. This article describes 2 experiments designed to validate a rapid online diagnostic method that was inspired by experimental procedures applied in classical cognitive studies of chess expertise. With the described rapid verification method, learners are required to rapidly verify suggested steps at various stages of a problem solution procedure. In this study involving 33 university students, a high degree of correlation was found between rapid testing scores and results of in-depth cognitive diagnosis based on observations of problem-solving steps using video recordings and concurrent verbal reports in the domains of kinematics (vector addition motion problems) and mathematics (transforming graphs of linear and quadratic functions). The article discusses possible applications of the suggested method in adaptive learning environments. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The expertise reversal effect: Cognitive load and motivational explanations.

The expertise reversal effect occurs when a learner's expertise moderates design principles such as the redundancy principle (i.e., redundant information should be excluded rather than included) derived from the cognitive load theory. Although this effect is supported by numerous experiments, indicating an overall large effect size, a variety of explanations have been proposed. The present experiment tested a cognitive load and a motivational explanation with 104 students, who reported a lack of experience in the presented instructional contents. They spent about 30 min with the instructional material to learn fundamental concepts about the gradient descent (a mathematical optimization algorithm), and with a retention and transfer test used as dependent measures. Each learner was randomly assigned to one cell of a 2 (either novices or experts introduced to through the instructional design presented previously) × 2 (either with or without additional text explaining the animations) between-subjects factorial design. The expertise reversal effect concerning the redundancy principle was replicated. Novices receiving additional text scored higher on retention and transfer than did novices without additional text, while this result was reversed for experts. Results suggest that this effect can be explained by the learner's cognitive load differences rather than overall motivation differences. Furthermore, a partial overlap was found between the motivational subdimension, “probability of success,” and a cognitive load measure. On the practical side, instructional designers should consider the learner's level of expertise and their cognitive load when applying design principles. Further implications for adaptive learning environments are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Optimizing cognitive load for learning from computer-based science simulations.

How can cognitive load in visual displays of computer simulations be optimized? Middle-school chemistry students (N = 257) learned with a simulation of the ideal gas law. Visual complexity was manipulated by separating the display of the simulations in 2 screens (low complexity) or presenting all information on 1 screen (high complexity). The mode of visual representation in the simulation was manipulated by presenting important information in symbolic form only (symbolic representations) or by adding iconic information to the display (iconic + symbolic representations), locating the sliders controlling the simulation separated from the simulation or integrating them, and graphing either only the most recent simulation result or showing all results taken. Separated screen displays and the use of optimized visual displays each promoted comprehension and transfer, especially for low prior-knowledge learners. An expertise reversal effect was found for learners' prior general science knowledge. Results indicate that intrinsic and extraneous cognitive load in visual displays can be manipulated and that learners' prior knowledge moderates the effectiveness of these load manipulations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Spindle cell (Kaposiform) hemangioendothelioma with Kasabach-Merritt syndrome in an infant: successful treatment with alpha-2A interferon

Typically, the primary instructional method for ambulatory care education is direct interaction between a preceptor and a learner during a patient encounter. This paper describes instructional strategies teachers and learners can use in ambulatory care training that can occur before or after scheduled clinic hours, thus providing instruction without disrupting a preceptor's busy clinic. First, they describe how preceptors and clerkship or residency-program directors can orient learners prior to their arrival at assigned sites, so that learners are better prepared to assume their patient-care responsibilities. Then they discuss strategies for making use of various types of conferences and independent learning activities to enhance learners' clinical experiences. Conferences and independent study projects that occur before clinic hours can help learners bring a higher level of thinking and clinical sophistication to their role in the ambulatory care site; conferences and independent study activities that occur after clinic hours give learners an opportunity to reinforce and expand on what they have learned during clinic. In this way, learners' educational experiences are enhanced, the best use is made of preceptors' time and expertise, and clinic efficiency is not disrupted.     

Preferred strategies for learning ethics in the practice of a discipline.

There are very few formal evaluations of the impact of instructional practices on the effectiveness of strategies for learning professional ethics. The assessment of ethical knowledge and skills is important in current discussions of professional mobility across North American jurisdictions. The present study investigated adult learners' perceived level of helpfulness of 7 strategies when learning 7 different ethical content areas. Adult learners rated interactive strategies as more helpful for learning compared to traditional didactic methods. Adult learners rated the helpfulness of various strategies differently for different content areas, indicating that several strategies may be useful. We conclude by making recommendations for further investigation of the effectiveness of various learning strategies in terms of knowledge gained and subsequent behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Feedback to teachers on student engagement as a consultation tool.

Estimated the time 3 academically delayed mainstreamed students (aged 8–9 yrs old) and their peers spent participating in their classroom assignments, using the Planned Activity Check (PLAC) observation and recording system. Teachers used the information to modify instructional strategies as they saw fit. As the feedback phase continued, despite no major increases in teacher attention, the mainstreamed Ss consistently improved their participation to close to 100%. The strategy proved practical as well as effective because teachers could use their own expertise to solve the problems that were revealed by the PLAC data. This method may be broadly used by school psychologists and educators concerned with increasing levels of student participation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Task control and cognitive abilities of self and spouse in collaboration in middle-aged and older couples.

[Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in Vol 22(4) of Psychology and Aging (see record 2007-18670-006). Due to an editing mistake, the order of authorship was incorrect. The correct order is as follows: Berg, Smith, Ko, Beveridge, Story, Henry, Florsheim, Pearce, Uchino, Skinner, & Glazer.] Collaborative problem solving may be used by older couples to optimize cognitive functioning, with some suggestion that older couples exhibit greater collaborative expertise. The study explored age differences in 2 aspects of collaborative expertise: spouses' knowledge of their own and their spouse's cognitive abilities and the ability to fit task control to these cognitive abilities. The participants were 300 middle-aged and older couples who completed a hypothetical errand task. The interactions were coded for control asserted by husbands and wives. Fluid intelligence was assessed, and spouses rated their own and their spouse's cognitive abilities. The results revealed no age differences in couple expertise, either in the ability to predict their own and their spouse's cognitive abilities or in the ability to fit task control to abilities. However, gender differences were found. Women fit task control to their own and their spouse's cognitive abilities; men only fit task control to their spouse's cognitive abilities. For women only, the fit between control and abilities was associated with better performance. The results indicate no age differences in couple expertise but point to gender as a factor in optimal collaboration. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Task control and cognitive abilities of self and spouse in collaboration in middle-aged and older couples": Erratum.

Reports an error in "Task control and cognitive abilities of self and spouse in collaboration in middle-aged and older couples" by Cynthia A. Berg, Timothy W. Smith, Kelly J. Ko, Nancy J. M. Henry, Paul Florsheim, Gale Pearce, Bert N. Uchino, Michelle A. Skinner, Ryan M. Beveridge, Nathan Story and Kelly Glazer (Psychology and Aging, 2007[Sep], Vol 22[3], 420-427). Due to an editing mistake, the order of authorship was incorrect. The correct order is as follows: Berg, Smith, Ko, Beveridge, Story, Henry, Florsheim, Pearce, Uchino, Skinner, & Glazer. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 2007-13103-002.) Collaborative problem solving may be used by older couples to optimize cognitive functioning, with some suggestion that older couples exhibit greater collaborative expertise. The study explored age differences in 2 aspects of collaborative expertise: spouses' knowledge of their own and their spouse's cognitive abilities and the ability to fit task control to these cognitive abilities. The participants were 300 middle-aged and older couples who completed a hypothetical errand task. The interactions were coded for control asserted by husbands and wives. Fluid intelligence was assessed, and spouses rated their own and their spouse's cognitive abilities. The results revealed no age differences in couple expertise, either in the ability to predict their own and their spouse's cognitive abilities or in the ability to fit task control to abilities. However, gender differences were found. Women fit task control to their own and their spouse's cognitive abilities; men only fit task control to their spouse's cognitive abilities. For women only, the fit between control and abilities was associated with better performance. The results indicate no age differences in couple expertise but point to gender as a factor in optimal collaboration. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Early home language use and later vocabulary development.

This longitudinal study examined the association between early patterns of home language use (age 4.5 years) and vocabulary growth (ages 4.5 to 12 years) in English and Spanish for 180 Spanish-speaking language minority learners followed from ages 4.5 to 12 years. Standardized measures of vocabulary were administered to children from ages 4.5 to 12 years, and home language use was assessed via parent survey at study entry. Three predominant home language use patterns were identified: mostly Spanish, equal amounts of Spanish and English, and mostly English. Individual growth modeling results demonstrated initial English vocabulary differences between the three language groups, with the mostly English group outperforming the other two language groups. However, the rate of growth for the equal amounts and mostly Spanish groups surpassed that of the mostly English group; by age 12 years, the gaps among the 3 groups had narrowed, but participants' vocabulary skills remained below national norms. In contrast, students' patterns of Spanish vocabulary growth did not vary, resulting in parallel but widening gaps through age 12 years. Results suggest that early Spanish use in language minority learners' homes, in and of itself, does not interfere with the development of English vocabulary. However, despite their English instructional context, all learners' vocabulary knowledge was below average and the gap compared with national norms persisted. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive interdependence and convergent expectations in transactive memory.

A laboratory experiment investigated the processes that underlie the development of transactive memory structures—the organizing schemes that connect knowledge held by individuals to knowledge held by others (D. A Wegner, T. Guiliano, & P. T. Hertel, 1985). The design was a 2?×?4 factorial that controlled expectations about the partner's knowledge (similar or different from the participant's) and cognitive interdependence, the degree to which participants' outcomes depended on whether they recalled the same or different information as their partner (defined by 4 incentives). Transactive memory was most differentiated when individuals had different expertise and incentives to remember different information and most integrated when individuals had similar expertise and incentives to remember the same information. These findings may help to explain the impact of previous experience and relationships on the development of transactive memory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The educative aspects of psychoanalysis.

The author explores ways in which psychoanalysts directly or indirectly educate their patients about attitudes, beliefs, and areas of knowledge in which the analytic community claims expertise. The neglected art of teaching a patient how to collaborate in the analytic process is addressed. Therapeutic aspects of educative interventions are discussed with respect to emotion, development, trauma and stress, intimacy and sexuality, and self-esteem. Emphasis is put on areas in which psychoanalytic subcultures differ notably from the larger society. The dangers of an analyst's taking a deliberately instructional stance or a tone of certainty are noted. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Epistemology and Adolescents' Conceptions of Procedural Justice in School.

When evaluating instructional practices, adolescents (n = 128, ages 14-19) coordinated knowledge of epistemology, fairness, and motivation in their conceptions of procedural justice. Adolescents ranked the fairness and effectiveness of instructional practices differently for controversial and noncontroversial topics. They raised epistemological, moral, and motivational concerns in their justifications but coordinated these issues differently for each science topic. Using prototypical practices as a stimulus, adolescents described how students could practice the scientific method, remember current scientific positions, or invent their own theories and methods. The proportion of adolescents offering different conceptions for each science topic was significantly different from chance, but 50% relied on one conception to evaluate all instructional practices. Adolescents' conceptions reflected their standards for evaluating educational experiences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Microgenetic analysis of first steps in children's acquisition of expertise on shorebirds.

A microgenetic analysis of the earliest steps in acquiring beginning levels of expertise on shorebirds was conducted. In Exp 1, 16 5-yr-old girls were given information about the names and attributes of 14 shorebirds during 4 sessions. Knowledge of names and attributes increased over time, and production of attributes surpassed production of names. Discrepancies between results from direct and indirect tests of attribute knowledge suggested a transitional period in the early development of expertise. Exp 2 involved a case analysis of a 4-yr-old boy who was an expert on other kinds of birds. Both experiments revealed the importance of individual characteristics to rate of expertise acquisition: children with higher levels of general intelligence and greater levels of domain-related knowledge acquire expertise faster. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social influences on metacognition: Effects of colearner questioning on comprehension monitoring.

Four experiments examined social influences on metacognition, testing whether learners' knowledge that colearners have questions about material they are simultaneously viewing affects learners' own judged levels of comprehension. In Experiment 1 (n?=?88), the frequency with which learners indicated they were confused increased with the number of questions they believed colearners had about the material. Experiment 2 (n?=?38) determined that the effect of colearner questioning on self-judged comprehension was not due to distraction or social facilitation. Experiment 3 (n?=?100) replicated the results of Experiment 1 and found that the social impact on learners' judgments of comprehension was less when questions were believed to have come from 3 colearners rather than 1. Experiment 4 (n?=?60) suggested that the number of questions per colearner determines their impact on others' comprehension judgments. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Student directed learning from biographical information systems.

Compared the effect of a student-directed instructional approach to a system-directed approach by studying how 64 high school seniors learned about Freud through an information system. The effect of student conceptual level (CL) was also investigated by use of an extreme group design. The student-directed approach was superior for knowledge acquisition, but no differences due to instructional approach were found for comprehension and synthesis. High CL Ss were superior to low CL Ss at all levels, thus emphasizing the need to consider both the characteristics of the learner and the level of behavioral objective in evaluating instructional approaches. (French summary) (16 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The cognitive reserve hypothesis: A longitudinal examination of age-associated declines in reasoning and processing speed.

The term cognitive reserve is frequently used to refer to the ubiquitous finding that, during later life, those higher in experiential resources (e.g., education, knowledge) exhibit higher levels of cognitive function. This observation may be the result of either experiential resources playing protective roles with respect to the cognitive declines associated with aging or the persistence of differences in functioning that have existed since earlier adulthood. These possibilities were examined by applying accelerated longitudinal structural equation (growth curve) models to 5-year reasoning and speed data from the no-contact control group (N = 690; age 65–89 years at baseline) of the Advanced Cognitive Training for Independent and Vital Elderly study. Vocabulary knowledge and years of education, as markers of cognitive reserve, were related to levels of cognitive functioning but unrelated to rates of cognitive change, both before and after the (negative) relations between levels and rates were controlled for. These results suggest that cognitive reserve reflects the persistence of earlier differences in cognitive functioning rather than differential rates of age-associated cognitive declines. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Acquired equivalence in human discrimination learning: The role of propositional knowledge.

The current study investigated the role of propositional knowledge in human acquired equivalence effects. Across 5 experiments, human adults were trained to associate different visual stimuli. Subsequent procedures presented training that was either consistent or inconsistent with the previous associations. More accurate responding in the consistent versus inconsistent condition reflected an acquired equivalence effect. The results of Experiment 1 indicated that a previously reported divergence between verbal and associative processes was likely due to instructional control. Experiments 2-5 further examined the role of verbal processes and demonstrated that acquired equivalence may be produced with verbal instructions alone and critically through a combination of instructions and actual stimulus pairings. The current data not only challenge a purely associative account but actively support an interaction between verbal and associative processes in producing the acquired equivalence effect in humans. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Learning argumentation skills through the use of prompts for self-explaining examples.

Learning with self-explaining examples is an effective method in well-structured domains. The authors analyzed this method in teaching the complex skill of argumentation, experimentally comparing 4 conditions (N = 71 student teachers) that differed with respect to whether and how the processing of the examples was supported by self-explanation prompts. They found that examples of argumentation could be successfully used to teach declarative knowledge about argumentation. However, when the skill of argumentation is to be fostered, prompts that direct the learners' attention to the principles of argumentation should be used. The authors demonstrate that learning with self-explaining examples is also a promising method of enhancing skills in ill-structured domains such as argumentation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of Adapting cognitive therapy for depression.

Reviews the book, Adapting cognitive therapy for depression by Mark A. Whisman (see record 2008-03297-000). The goal of this volume is to provide detailed, empirically supported instructions for adapting CT for complex, comorbid presentations in depression. All of the chapters follow a similar format, which makes them very easy to read and absorb. They are all written by experts in the field using clear, jargon-free language. Each chapter provides instructions for adapting the assessment, case conceptualization, and cognitive treatment of clients presenting with a number of types of complexity. For the most part, these instructions are supported by the research literature. As such, this is a work that is readily accessible to professionals at all levels of training and expertise, and represents an invaluable resource for clinicians working with depressed clients. Furthermore, this text is an excellent scholarly resource of the most up-to-date research literature on the applicability of CT to complex populations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Real-time training: Transfer of knowledge through computer-mediated, real-time feedback.

In this article, the author describes an interactive, computer-mediated method/technology for promoting transfer of knowledge, theoretically grounded in cognitive science, that responds specifically to needs outlined by Binder (1993; 1999) and Berger (2004) for integrating cognitive psychology principles and interactive, computer-mediated methods with psychotherapy training. The article provides a context for understanding the process known as Real-Time Training (RTT; Rosenberg, 2000a) by reviewing expertise research literature as applied to clinical training, describing the conceptual framework underlying the development of RTT, reviewing live and computer-mediated supervision methods for clinical training, providing preliminary research validation of RTT, and discussing clinical training and supervision implications. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)