The effects of heuristic rule training on operator performance in a simulated process control environment

In complex work environments, the occurrence of novel system states represents a particular challenge for the design of training. This article is concerned with the use of heuristic rules to prepare operators for the management of unfamiliar fault states. An experiment was carried out to examine the effects of heuristic rule training on operator performance and system management behaviour. Thirty-nine trainee operators from the chemical industry took part in the study. They were trained for 4 h on a PC-based simulation of a process control task. Operators in the experimental group received training on heuristic rules while operators in the control group did not. One week later the operators participated in a 70-min testing session. While the results showed that heuristic rules training led to better diagnostic performance, it was also associated with increased operator fatigue and impaired secondary task performance. The implications of the findings for using heuristic rule training are discussed.     

The effects of heuristic rule training on operator performance in a simulated process control environment

In complex work environments, the occurrence of novel system states represents a particular challenge for the design of training. This article is concerned with the use of heuristic rules to prepare operators for the management of unfamiliar fault states. An experiment was carried out to examine the effects of heuristic rule training on operator performance and system management behaviour. Thirty-nine trainee operators from the chemical industry took part in the study. They were trained for 4 h on a PC-based simulation of a process control task. Operators in the experimental group received training on heuristic rules while operators in the control group did not. One week later the operators participated in a 70-min testing session. While the results showed that heuristic rules training led to better diagnostic performance, it was also associated with increased operator fatigue and impaired secondary task performance. The implications of the findings for using heuristic rule training are discussed.     

Practice and carryover effects when using small interaction devices

The use of interaction devices in modern work often challenges the human motor system, especially when these devices introduce unfamiliar transformations to the user. In this paper we evaluated expert performance and skill differences between experts and novices when using small motion- and force-controlled interaction devices (touchpad and mini-joystick) in an applied text-editing task. Firstly, experts performed better with their familiar input device than with an unfamiliar one. Particularly touchpad experts operating the unfamiliar mini-joystick showed highly asymmetric carryover costs. Results showed that the efficient performance of experts depended on domain-specific skills, which were not transferable. Secondly, with considerable practice (more than observed for simple and short tasks) novices were brought up to higher levels of performance. The motion-transformation between hand and cursor action was easier in understanding and application than the force-transformation. Thus, the touchpad was used more efficiently than the mini-joystick. In conclusion, practice effects found so far are considerably underestimated when it comes to an applied task. The results give reason to develop and implement skill-sensitive training procedures, since the acquisition of domain-specific skills is critical for expert performance. As a consequence, training procedures might be essential for complex applications and/or unfamiliar device transformations.     

Training Effective Human Performance in the Management of Stressful Emergencies

Emergency situations in industry occur suddenly and often unexpectedly; operators must make critical decisions under stress, and the consequences of errors can be immediate and catastrophic. Training effective performance under stress becomes an important aspect in the management of emergencies. This article proposes a taxonomy of cognitive strategies that enable operators to regulate their thinking and adapt decisions to changes in the demands of the situation. Cognitive strategies, such as, tolerating uncertainty, managing workload, planning for contingencies, and self-monitoring, provide the content of training emergency response. Stress, however, interferes with the learning of strategies, which presents a challenge to the design of training methods. Exposure to stress during training, degree of task decomposition, guidance, contextual variety and feedback are some of the training methods explored to facilitate the acquisition and transfer of cognitive strategies. Diversions from the traditional systems approach to training are pointed out and areas for further training research are identified.     

Cognitive diversity and team performance in a complex multiple task environment

This article examines the multiple effects of cognitive diversity in teams operating complex human-machine-systems. The study employed a PC-based multiple-task environment, called the Cabin Air Management System, which models a process control task in the operational context of a spacecraft's life support system. Two types of cognitive diversity were examined: system understanding and team specialization. System understanding referred to the depth of understanding team members were given during training (low-level procedure-oriented vs. high level knowledge-oriented training). Team specialization referred to the degree to which knowledge about system fault scenarios was distributed between team members (specialized vs. non-specialized). A total of 72 participants took part in the study. After having received 4.5 h of training on an individual basis, participants completed a 1-h experimental session, in which they worked in two-person teams on a series of fault scenarios of varying difficulty. Measures were taken of primary and secondary task performance, system intervention and information sampling strategies, system knowledge, subjective operator state, communication patterns and conflict. The results provided evidence for the benefits of cognitive diversity with regard to system understanding. This manifested itself in better primary task performance and more efficient manual system control. No advantages were found for cognitive diversity with regard to specialization. There was no effect of cognitive diversity on intra-team conflict, with conflict levels generally being very low. The article concludes with a discussion of the implications of the findings for the engineering of cognitive diversity in teams operating complex human-machine-systems.     

Cognitive diversity and team performance in a complex multiple task environment

This article examines the multiple effects of cognitive diversity in teams operating complex human-machine-systems. The study employed a PC-based multiple-task environment, called the Cabin Air Management System, which models a process control task in the operational context of a spacecraft's life support system. Two types of cognitive diversity were examined: system understanding and team specialization. System understanding referred to the depth of understanding team members were given during training (low-level procedure-oriented vs. high level knowledge-oriented training). Team specialization referred to the degree to which knowledge about system fault scenarios was distributed between team members (specialized vs. non-specialized). A total of 72 participants took part in the study. After having received 4.5 h of training on an individual basis, participants completed a 1-h experimental session, in which they worked in two-person teams on a series of fault scenarios of varying difficulty. Measures were taken of primary and secondary task performance, system intervention and information sampling strategies, system knowledge, subjective operator state, communication patterns and conflict. The results provided evidence for the benefits of cognitive diversity with regard to system understanding. This manifested itself in better primary task performance and more efficient manual system control. No advantages were found for cognitive diversity with regard to specialization. There was no effect of cognitive diversity on intra-team conflict, with conflict levels generally being very low. The article concludes with a discussion of the implications of the findings for the engineering of cognitive diversity in teams operating complex human-machine-systems.     

Content and representation effects with reasoning tasks in PROLOG form

Abstract

Two experiments were carried out to examine human reasoning performance in the context of the logic programming language PROLOG. Two factors, ‘content’ (familiar versus unfamiliar) and ‘representation’ (diagrammatic versus PROLOG-like list) were investigated. Subjects answered questions about hierarchical relationships in each condition. A significant interaction was obtained in both experiments, subjects making fewer errors in the familiar-diagram and unfamiliar-list conditions than in the familiar-list and unfamiliar-diagram conditions.

It is hypothesized that a lower percentage of correct responses was given in familiar-list and unfamiliar–diagram conditions because the representation of information prevented successful use of an appropriate reasoning strategy. Working memory limitations provide a basis for understanding constraints on reasoning strategies for solving task questions. These strategies may involve either a serial or a spatial solution process. One strategy may require a larger working memory load than another, depending on the representation and content of the task information. Implications for PROLOG programming instruction are discussed.     

Comparative study of three training methods for enhancing process control performance: Emphasis shift training,situation awareness training,and drill and practice

Three training methods to improve attention management skills in process control were compared. Forty students from technical disciplines participated in a five-hour module of emphasis shift training (EST), EST combined with situation awareness training (EST/SA), and drill and practice (D&P) on a simulated process control task. Participants were then tested three times for 45 min each (immediately after training, two weeks after training, and six weeks after training) for system control performance and diagnostic performance on familiar and nonfamiliar fault states. D&P led to superior diagnostic performance on familiar system faults. EST/SA training supported the diagnosis of novel system faults. EST was less effective than expected for system control performance. Implications for training design in process control are discussed.     

Air traffic control: Ocular metrics reflect cognitive complexity

The objective of the study was to evaluate effects of complexity on cognitive workload in a simulated air traffic control conflict detection task by means of eye movements recording. We manipulated two complexity factors, convergence angle and aircrafts minimum distance at closest approach, in a multidimensional workload assessment method based on psychophysiological, performance, and subjective measures. Conflict trials resulted more complex and time-consuming than no conflicts, requiring more frequent fixations and saccades. Moreover, large saccades showed reduced burst power with higher task complexity. A motion-based and a ratio-based strategy were suggested for conflicts and no conflicts on the basis of ocular metrics analysis: aircrafts differential speed and distance to convergence point at trial start were considered determinant for strategy adoption.Relevance to industryEye metrics measurement for online workload assessment enhances better identification of workload-inducing scenarios and adopted strategy for traffic management. System design, as well as air traffic control operators training programs, might benefit from on line workload measurement.     

LIY: learn-it-yourself software interfaces

An increasing number of people are becoming users of unfamiliar software. They can be genuinely "new" computer users or part of a growing group who are transferring skills and knowledge from a familiar product such as a word processor to a functionally similar, but different, unfamiliar one. The problem for users in this position is that they do not have access to training courses to teach them how to use such software and are usually forced to rely on text-based documentation. LIY is a method for producing computer-based tutorials to teach the user ofasoftware product.This paper describes how LIY is, in turn, (1) a method for application system design which recognizes the need for tutorial design (a task analysis and user interface specification provide information structures that are passed to the tutorial designer); (2) a support environment for the tutorial designer (in addition to prompting for courseware for nodes in the task analysis, LIY provides a ready-made rule base for constraining the degree of learner control available while the tutorial is in use. The designer is able to tailor this rule base for a specific tutorial); and (3) a tutorial delivery environment (the tutorial adapts to individual learners and offers a degree of learner control).     

Evaluating a range of learning schedules: hybrid training schedules may be as good as or better than distributed practice for some tasks

We investigated theoretically and empirically a range of training schedules on tasks with three knowledge types: declarative, procedural, and perceptual-motor. We predicted performance for 6435 potential eight-block training schedules with ACT-R's declarative memory equations. Hybrid training schedules (schedules consisting of distributed and massed practice) were predicted to produce better performance than purely distributed or massed training schedules. The results of an empirical study (N = 40) testing four exemplar schedules indicated a more complex picture. There were no statistical differences among the groups in the declarative and procedural tasks. We also found that participants in the hybrid practice groups produced reliably better performance than ones in the distributed practice group for the perceptual-motor task – the results indicate training schedules with some spacing and some intensiveness may lead to better performance, particularly for perceptual-motor tasks, and that tasks with mixed types of knowledge might be better taught with a hybrid schedule.     

Cognitive load theory vs. constructivist approaches: which best leads to efficient,deep learning?

Computer‐assisted learning, in the form of simulation‐based training, is heavily focused upon by the military. Because computer‐based learning offers highly portable, reusable, and cost‐efficient training options, the military has dedicated significant resources to the investigation of instructional strategies that improve learning efficiency within this environment. In order to identify efficient instructional strategies, this paper investigates the two major learning theories that dominate the recent literature on optimizing knowledge acquisition: cognitive load theory (CLT) and constructivism. According to CLT, instructional guidance that promotes efficient learning is most beneficial. Constructivist approaches, in contrast, emphasize the importance of developing a conceptual understanding of the learning material. Supporters of these theories have debated the merits and shortcomings of both positions. However, in the absence of consensus, instructional designers lack a well‐defined model for training complex skills in a rapid, efficient manner. The current study investigates the relative utility of CLT and constructivist‐based approaches for teaching complex skills using a military command and control task. Findings suggest that the acquisition of procedural, declarative, and conceptual knowledge, as well as decision‐making skills, did not differ as a function of the type of instruction used. However, integrated knowledge was slightly better retained by the group provided with CLT‐based instruction. These results are contrary to our expectation that constructivist approaches, which focus on the development and integration of information, would yield better performance in an applied problem‐based environment. Thus, while contemporary researchers continue to defend the use of constructivist strategies for teaching, our research supports earlier findings that question the utility, efficiency, and impact of these strategies in applied domains.     

Content and representation effects with reasoning tasks in PROLOG form

Two experiments were carried out to examine human reasoning performance in the context of the logic programming language PROLOG. Two factors, 'content' (familiar versus unfamiliar) and 'representation' (diagrammatic versus PROLOG-like list) were investigated. Subjects answered questions about hierarchical relationships in each condition. A significant interaction was obtained in both experiments, subjects making fewer errors in the familiar-diagram and unfamiliar-list conditions than in the familiar-list and unfamiliar-diagram conditions.

It is hypothesized that a lower percentage of correct responses was given in familiar-list and unfamiliar-diagram conditions because the representation of information prevented successful use of an appropriate reasoning strategy. Working memory limitations provide a basis for understanding constraints on reasoning strategies for solving task questions. These strategies may involve either a serial or a spatial solution process. One strategy may require a larger working memory load than another, depending on the representation and content of the task information. Implications for PROLOG programming instruction are discussed.     

The interaction of drill and practice and error training with individual differences

This article examines the question of whether the effectiveness of training methods in vocational training settings is modified by trainee characteristics. General mental abilities, cognitive style and conscientiousness were measured as person variables that were expected to influence the effectiveness of training methods. Being trained on a simulated process control environment as an example for a complex technological task for 5 h, N = 38 participants received either drill & practice (D&P) or error training (ET) as two distinct training methods. A 70-minute transfer test followed 9 weeks later, in which the trainees had to manage familiar (near transfer) as well as unfamiliar fault states (far transfer). The results showed that high-ability trainees benefited more from D&P than from ET, whereas low-ability trainees benefited equally well from either training method. Furthermore, participants with a highly flexible cognitive style benefited more from D&P rather than ET. Also participants low in conscientiousness profited more from D&P. The findings are indicative of the tentative benefits of using learner-tailored training methods, suggesting that this person-centered approach is worthy of further exploration.     

Learning while multitasking: short and long-term benefits of brain stimulation

Abstract

We employed a simulated production task that mimics the real-world skill acquisition required of operators working in control rooms of power plants to assess short and long-term effects of transcranial random noise stimulation (tRNS). tRNS has shown potential for enhancing learning and performance of cognitive skills. Forty subjects (24 female) learned how to execute the simulated production task during the training phase and were required to perform a secondary task during the skill acquisition phase while they received active (12?min) or sham tRNS on DLPFC. After 2 weeks they had to recall the task again without any stimulation. The results demonstrate that tRNS promoted better multitasking as reflected by better performance in a secondary task during and immediately after tRNS. However, 2 weeks later, beneficial effect of tRNS on retention was moderated by general mental ability. Particularly, tRNS benefited those with lower general mental ability.

Practitioner summary: By using a simulated production task, we assessed the effects of tRNS on learning and skill retention. The study indicates that neurostimulation can enhance the learning of multiple complex tasks. Moreover, it shows that retention of those tasks can be supported by neurostimulation, especially for those with lower general mental ability.     

Situational awareness ability and cognitive skills training in a complex real-world task

Successful performance in complex dynamic environments depends on domain-dependent factors, such as situational awareness (SA). Underlying SA in a domain are domain-independent cognitive abilities in perception, memory, attention and executive control. Individuals with lower underlying ability perform relatively poorly in complex dynamic real-world tasks. The first experiment examined whether cognitive skills training could overcome limitations in underlying SA ability that impact on complex dynamic task performance. Participants were taught a mix of cognitive management strategies (e.g. divided and focused attention and visual search) in a simulated air traffic control task. A second experiment investigated the link between underlying SA ability, TRACON and SAGAT, a widely used measure of domain-specific SA. In a third experiment, the focus was on encouraging participants to plan ahead and consider the interrelations of elements (aircraft) in the environment. Whilst both training methods ameliorated the negative impact that lower SA ability had on complex dynamic task performance, the results of the third study indicated that this may have been achieved through improved planning behaviour. Finally, participants with higher underlying SA ability performed well irrespective of training condition.     

Situational awareness ability and cognitive skills training in a complex real-world task

Successful performance in complex dynamic environments depends on domain-dependent factors, such as situational awareness (SA). Underlying SA in a domain are domain-independent cognitive abilities in perception, memory, attention and executive control. Individuals with lower underlying ability perform relatively poorly in complex dynamic real-world tasks. The first experiment examined whether cognitive skills training could overcome limitations in underlying SA ability that impact on complex dynamic task performance. Participants were taught a mix of cognitive management strategies (e.g. divided and focused attention and visual search) in a simulated air traffic control task. A second experiment investigated the link between underlying SA ability, TRACON and SAGAT, a widely used measure of domain-specific SA. In a third experiment, the focus was on encouraging participants to plan ahead and consider the interrelations of elements (aircraft) in the environment. Whilst both training methods ameliorated the negative impact that lower SA ability had on complex dynamic task performance, the results of the third study indicated that this may have been achieved through improved planning behaviour. Finally, participants with higher underlying SA ability performed well irrespective of training condition.     

The effects of lumbar massage on muscle fatigue,muscle oxygenation,low back discomfort,and driver performance during prolonged driving

This paper reviews results of comparisons between novice and expert operators in the supervision of dynamic environments. Firstly, the characteristics of expertise and its operational definitions are discussed. Secondly, the main dimensions of the complexity of these environments are described and the difficulties operators have in coping with complexity are examined. Research work carried out in field studies is then overviewed in order to assess the role of expertise in the three components of process control: monitoring, diagnosis and decision-making and executive control. The discussion stresses the convergent results of various studies. In spite of the diversity of task domains and of novice-expert definitions, results converge on three points: experts are better at producing inference, in anticipating, and have a more functional view of the process. Divergent results on directionality of reasoning, depth of knowledge in relation to performance and synchronization of actions are also discussed. Finally, further research trends are outlined.     

The search for complex problem-solving strategies in the presence of stressors

OBJECTIVE: The present research tests the effects of time pressure and noise on open-mindedness to discover new problem-solving strategies. BACKGROUND: We are primarily interested in transfer of skill from one phase to the next. More specifically, this study investigates whether the presence of stressors makes participants adhere to the sustained use of complex rules. METHOD: Participants learned to apply a complex rule in the first phase of a category learning task. In the second phase, this rule became dysfunctional and participants had to search for a new categorization rule in order to assign the stimuli to the correct classes. Two experiments were set up to investigate this issue. RESULTS: Participants were found to have difficulty discovering a complex Phase 2 rule in the presence of stressors, whereas the discovery of a simple rule was not hindered by the presence of stressors. CONCLUSION: In the discussion, it is argued that the present results are compatible with previous research on stressors showing that time pressure and noise induce the application of simple strategies. The innovative finding here is that this simplification also occurs in individuals who are accustomed to using complex solutions. APPLICATION: The implications of the present results for emergency response training are elaborated upon.     

Integration of task networks and cognitive user models using coloured Petri nets and its application to job design for safety and productivity

Changes of task demands due to unforeseen events and technological changes can cause variations in job design such as modifications to job procedures and task allocation. Failure to adapt to job design variations can lead to human errors that may have severe consequences for system safety. Existing techniques for task modelling cannot adequately model how task networks can be adapted to changing work conditions and task demands. Therefore, there is a need to integrate task networks with cognitive user models that indicate how operators process information, make decisions, or cope with suspended tasks and errors. The work described here presents a tool for integrating task and cognitive models using coloured Petri nets. The cognitive user model comprises two modules of attention management (selective and divided attention), a module of memory management of suspended tasks and a module of work organization. Performance Shaping Factors (e.g., workload, fatigue and mental-tracking load) are calculated at any point in time to take into account the context of work (e.g., competing activities, errors and suspended tasks). Different types of human error can be modelled for rule-based behaviours required in proceduralized work environments. Simulation analysis and formal analysis techniques can be applied to process control tasks to verify job procedures, workload management strategies and task allocation schemes in response to technological changes and unfamiliar events.