Decoupling features and virtual sensors for diagnosis of faults in vapor compression air conditioners

This paper describes the development and evaluation of features and virtual sensors that form the basis of a methodology for detecting and diagnosing multiple-simultaneous faults in vapor compression air conditioning equipment. The features were developed based upon a physical understanding of the system, cost considerations, and heuristics derived from experimental data and modeling results. Virtual sensors were developed in order to reduce the cost of implementation. The validity of the features and virtual sensors was evaluated using measurements from a variety of different air conditioners tested in a laboratory environment. More detailed evaluation results are presented in separate papers.     

The impact of evaporator fouling and filtration on the performance of packaged air conditioners

The goal of the study presented in this paper was to evaluate the impact of different filter types on the performance of three typical packaged air conditioners under both clean and fouled conditions. In a companion paper, combinations of six different levels of filtration and four different coils were tested under clean and fouled conditions. From the tests, it was found that fouling has a relatively small impact on air-side effective heat transfer coefficient, but can have a large impact on coil pressure drop. Data from the experimental study were used in developing simulation models for the three packaged air conditioners. Simulations show that the equipment cooling capacity is reduced with fouling primarily because of a decrease in air flow due to the increased pressure drop. In most cases, EER (energy efficiency ratio) was reduced with fouling primarily due to increased fan power. However, the changes in EER were relatively small, in the range of 1–10%. Equipment having low efficiency filters had higher EER after fouling than equipment with high efficiency filters, because high efficiency filters result in significantly higher pressure drops than low efficiency filters. The impact of the evaporator side fan efficiency was found to be significant. The energy penalty associated with high efficiency filters was reduced greatly when fan efficiency increased. Although high efficiency filters cause higher energy penalties they provide considerably better air quality. The quantity of dust passing through the coil with an MERV14 filter was approximately 30 times less than the dust passing the coil with an MERV4 filter. This difference was doubled when the MERV14 filter was compared to a case with no filter in place.     

提高房间空调器试验精度要求的探讨

根据对房间空调器测试工况控制偏差所引起的测试数据和结果的变化差异分析,阐述通过提高测试控制精度途径,找到提高房间空调器试验精度的方法。     

房间空调器性能的模糊综合评判

针对目前房间空调器性能的研究仅局限于某一方面而不能全面评价其综合性能的问题,利用模糊数学理论,从技术性、经济性、安全可靠性、维修性、健康舒适性和环保性等6个因素对其性能进行了模糊综合评价.实例分析表明,利用模糊综合评判对房间空调器的性能进行综合评价是可行的;模糊综合评判的结果,可为其性能的改进指明方向;模糊综合评判的结果在很大程度上取决于专家的判断,应用该方法时应综合各方面的意见.     

Experimental comparison of electronic and thermostatic expansion valves performances in an air conditioning plant

Adopting electronic expansion valves in air conditioners enables an appreciable energy saving with respect to the same installations equipped with traditional thermostatic expansion valves. This is due to the fact that electronic valves allow a lower condensation pressure in systems equipped with air cooled condensers, which is adjusted to variations in outside air temperature. Furthermore, PID (Proportional–Integral–Derivative) control over the superheating leads to the best use of evaporator under every condition (lower superheating level of the vapour refrigerant), thus increasing the refrigerating capacity.This paper reports on the results of a set of measurements that were carried out from March to November 2006 on the operation of eight direct expansion air conditioners having a total cooling capacity of 120 kW installed at a telephone control room near Bologna (North Italy). Air conditioners are equipped with both thermostatic and electronic expansion valves, alternatively activated by solenoid valves on a daily basis, in order to compare the two systems in the same environment and at similar load conditions. The annual analysis is supplemented by a transient simulation program to simulate the behaviour of the system in the two different operating modes in different European climates, in order to evaluate the energetic and economic advantages of electronic valve.     

Seasonal performance of a central air conditioner in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. A computer simulation study

Seasonal performance of four standard, residential-sized, central air conditioners in a typical hot and humid climate of Gulf environment was measured. A computer model was developed to stimulate the residential building cooling loads and the resulting seasonal energy consumption. For an average 100 m² residence located in Dhahran, equipped with a 17.6 kW air conditioner, simulations show a consumption of ≈22200 kWh of electricity for space cooling over 2600 operation hours, this being within 13% of the measured value. The seasonal performance of three lower capacity (10.5, 12.3 and 14.0 kW) air conditioners for the same duty was also predicted. With the 14.0 kW capacity unit the electricity consumption is reduced by ≈ kWh and can satisfy the load for 96.6% of the time. The smallest (10.5kW) of the four systems can supply the house cooling load for only ≈78% of the time with a seasonal energy consumption of 17 350 kWh.     

空调器非稳态制热量测量方法探讨

分析空调器非稳态制热量测量的特点和常规焓差法在非稳态制热量测量方面的欠缺。提出一种基于焓差法的改进型空调器非稳态制热量测量方法,即前置式测量空调器出风温度的方法,并对这种方法进行试验验证。结果表明,这种方法能够有效排除出风与受风室之间非稳态换热量对测量结果的影响,提高测试精度。     

Design of a steady-state detector for fault detection and diagnosis of a residential air conditioner

This paper presents a general methodology for developing a steady-state detector for a vapor compression system based on a moving window and using standard deviations of seven measurements selected as features. The feature thresholds and optimized moving window size were based upon steady-state no-fault tests and startup transient tests. The study showed that evaporator superheat and condenser subcooling were sufficient for determining the onset of steady-state during the startup transient. However, they misidentified steady-state during indoor temperature change tests where evaporator saturation temperature and air temperature change across the evaporator were needed for proper steady-state identification. Hence, the paper recommends including all fault detection and diagnosis (FDD) features in the steady-state detector to ensure the robustness of the detector because different features may play key roles with different transients.     

Performance representation of variable-speed compressor for inverter air conditioners based on experimental data

Variable speed control of compressors is one of the best methods to regulate the capacity of heat pumps and air conditioners. An analysis is conducted for modeling the variable speed compressor for simulation of inverter air conditioner and heat pump. Having scattered the real operation performance of inverter compressor into infinite operation performance of constant speed compressor, the map-based method is utilized to fit the performance curves of inverter compressor. The model is built at the basic frequency and the map condition as the second-order function of condensation temperature and evaporation temperature. Then it is corrected by the compressor frequency as the second-order function of frequency and by the actual operating condition as the actual specific volume of the suction gas. This method is used to set up simulation models of three different compressors. Compared with the data provided by the compressor manufacturers, the average relative errors are less than 2, 3 and 4% for refrigerant mass flow rate, compressor power input and coefficient of performance (COP), respectively. This model of variable speed compressor is suitable for the simulation of inverter air conditioner and heat pump systems. Based on the experimental data and simulation model, the frequency at zero mass flow rate and power input at zero frequency are discussed and the relation between COP and compressor frequency is analyzed.     

湿度变化对空调器运行性能的影响

通过一系列试验,分析制冷室外侧、制热室内侧湿度变化对空调器运行性能的影响,并对现行的一些空调器试验工况提出修改意见,以达到大幅节能、提高测试效率的目的。     

Ecological and energy efficiency analysis of ejector and vapor compression air conditioners

A methodology of eco-energy analysis of power-intensive equipment, based on the calculation of the life cycle greenhouse gas emissions, is presented. According to the presented methodology, a comparative eco-energy analysis of vapor compression and ejector air conditioners operating with R245fa and natural refrigerant R600a at different working conditions in China and Ukraine has been undertaken. As a result, new eco-energy indicators, which allow for the determination of the prospects of alternative air conditioning system implementation, have been developed. It is shown that ejector air conditioners have eco-energy prospects for implementation if they are driven by waste heat from several industries.     

A generalized coefficient of performance for conditioning moist air

The psychrometric chart is a useful tool for calculating the energy change between any two states and visually identifying the contribution of ‘sensible’ and ‘latent’ effects. However, the amount of work needed to move from one state to another is not read directly from the chart. In this paper, temperature and vapor pressure changes are cast into terms of minimum work relative to a dead state, and work contours are plotted on the psychrometric chart. These contours show the minimum work needed to move the state of the air further from the ambient conditions or the maximum work produced by letting a state approach the ambient conditions. A dividing line between heat pump and refrigeration operation is set on the basis total energy of the conditioned space relative to the ambient. Finally, an example is used to illustrate the implementation of the analysis.     

ISO 5151新旧版本主要差异解析

目前我国房间空调器执行的性能标准是GB/T 7725—2004,标准非等效采用了ISO 5151:1994的内容。随着空调器技术的不断更新,国际标准化组织对ISO 5151:1994内容进行调整和更新,并发布实施新版标准ISO 5151:2010,新版标准更加符合目前空调器产品的技术特点。为了使空调器研发人员更好地理解新版ISO 5151内容并掌握最新的房间空调器性能试验方法,本文对标准ISO 5151新旧版本在产品适用范围、定义、试验项目、试验方法等方面的主要差异进行详细解析。     

高能效比家用空调器制冷系统的优化设计

介绍实施2010年最新能效等级标准后一款高能效定频空调器的设计思路和开展过程,包括制冷系统的匹配以及压缩器、蒸发器、毛细管等各主要零部件的选择过程和确认方法.结合工作中出现的问题,指明匹配试验过程中需要注意的事项,介绍关于家用空调器制冷系统匹配的一些经验总结和体会.     

微通道换热器空调系统性能试验分析

本文通过对两套采用微通道换热器的KFR-72LW空调器样机（1号机：室内外换热器均采用微通道换热器;2号机：室外机为微通道换热器,室内机为管翅式换热器）,分别进行性能测试,对比分析采用微通道换热器与管翅式换热器的空调器性能差异。试验结果分析显示：微通道换热器空调器具有高效（强制冷性能）、减排（减少制冷剂充注量）、低成本（换热器小型化）等优点;但制热工况下,因室外机采用微通道换热器,换热面积大幅度减小,蒸发压力过低,导致制热效果不良、系统频繁除霜等问题,有待于进一步研究解决。     

Choice of sink for air conditioning systems

This Paper presents general correlations to estimate the power demand of different conventional air conditioning (A/C) systems operating under varied climatological conditions. The results have been applied to estimate the peak power demand and annual energy consumption. As a case study, the analysis is applied to Kuwaiti buildings for quantitative assessments using a unit peak cooling load (1 kW_c). Contrary to general understanding and practice the results strongly favour the use of water-cooled systems for both the residential and the non-residential types of buildings.     

The coefficient of performance of an ideal air conditioner

In this paper we present the expression for the COP of an ideal air conditioner in terms of the temperature of air at the inlet and outlet of the air conditioner.     

Modeling the thawing of frozen foods using air impingement technology

With the continual growth in the use of frozen foods both in retail and in food service, there is a need to develop improved thawing methods. Current methods are often undesirably slow (still air) or are very expensive and cause uneven thawing (microwave). Air impingement technology is one possible method to improve the thawing of frozen foods. The objectives of this research were to develop a two-dimensional model for air impingement thawing frozen foods and to verify the model experimentally. Frozen products were thawed using a laboratory impingement system with a single impingement jet. A simulated meat product (Tylose gel) was used as the test material. Thawing of a Tylose disk (12.7 cm diameter, 1.98 cm thickness) with air at 6 °C without impingement required more than 12 h, while thawing under a single impingement jet took less than 3 h, over four times faster. Results from the finite difference model gave good agreement with experimental data. Moisture loss during thawing was typically over-predicted because moisture gain due to condensation was not modeled.     

Uncertainty Analysis for Angle Calibrations Using Circle Closure

We analyze two types of full-circle angle calibrations: a simple closure in which a single set of unknown angular segments is sequentially compared with an unknown reference angle, and a dual closure in which two divided circles are simultaneously calibrated by intercomparison. In each case, the constraint of circle closure provides auxiliary information that (1) enables a complete calibration process without reference to separately calibrated reference artifacts, and (2) serves to reduce measurement uncertainty. We derive closed-form expressions for the combined standard uncertainties of angle calibrations, following guidelines published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and NIST. The analysis includes methods for the quantitative evaluation of the standard uncertainty of small angle measurement using electronic autocollimators, including the effects of calibration uncertainty and air turbulence.