THE ROLE OF MUNICIPAL‐LEVEL FACTORS IN NEIGHBORHOOD ECONOMIC CHANGE

Despite extensive studies on neighborhood change, the role of municipal‐level factors in neighborhood economic change has been underexplored. This article reviews diverse social science literature and makes theoretical connections between city size and homogeneity of city population and municipal performance, which is accordingly associated with neighborhood economic health. Building on the insights from the literature, this study hypothesizes that neighborhoods stay economically healthier in smaller cities and more homogeneous cities. This study presents a multilevel analysis of neighborhood economic change in 35 U.S. metropolitan areas between 1990 and 2000 and finds empirical evidence to support the proposed hypothesis.     

NEIGHBORHOOD RACIAL COMPOSITION AND MORTGAGE LENDING: City and Suburban Differences

ABSTRACT: Racially discriminatory mortgage lending patterns have been documented in several cities, despite the fact that such practices are illegal under the Federal Fair Housing Act and other federal and state laws. This study finds that in Milwaukee, as in several other metropolitan areas, racial composition of neighborhood is negatively associated with mortgage lending activity by depository institutions even after the effects of income, condition of housing, and related population and neighborhood characteristics are taken into consideration. However, the effects of race are not linear and are different in the city and in the suburbs. In the city, the effects of race were largest in integrated areas, whereas in the suburbs the effects of race were positive when few minorities were present and negative in those areas having large concentrations of minority residents.     

Metropolitan growth and community disparities: Insights from the state of New Jersey in the US

An increasing concern among regional growth policymakers who aim to promote balanced growth is the widening economic disparity among the communities in metropolitan areas. But the causes and consequences of such disparities have not been fully addressed in planning and public policy literature. Using the longitudinal data (1970–2009) for 566 municipalities in the State of New Jersey in US, this study shows that overall metropolitan economic disparity is attributable to interjurisdictional economic disparity. The inter-jurisdictional economic disparity arises from the disproportionate distribution of human capital and minority populations across municipalities. Our study also confirms that housing market constraints, municipal taxes, and public expenditures play a significant role in inter-jurisdictional economic disparity and polarization. Since narrowing interjurisdictional disparity is imperative for community stability and regional economic competitiveness, we discuss the policy implications for reducing inter-jurisdictional disparity within metropolitan areas.     

RACIAL COMPOSITION AND NEIGHBORHOOD EVALUATION

While the negative association between racial composition and neighborhood evaluation for white residents is fairly well established, there is less consensus on what are the precise mechanisms which produce this relationship. This paper examines three possible mechanisms in this regard: status loss, perceived decline in the quality of neighborhood services, and fears about personal safety. A survey of nine neighborhoods with different racial mixes finds evidence for the direct effect of racial composition on white residents' evaluations through status loss and its indirect effect through fears about personal safety, but no support for the notion that the racial composition effect operates through negative perceptions of neighborhood public services. Alternatively, having larger numbers of blacks in a neighborhood has a negative effect on black residents through its association with a perception of lower quality public services: at the same time, higher numbers of blacks in a neighborhood has a positive effect on black residents' evaluations of the area, once the association between racial composition and perception of quality of services is taken into account. This positive effect operates directly and also indirectly, through its association with perceptions of greater safety. The implications of these findings for the future of integrated neighborhoods are discussed.     

CHANGES IN RELIGIOUS ECOLOGY AND SOCIOECONOMIC CORRELATES FOR NEIGHBORHOODS IN A METROPOLITAN REGION

Economic and social forces have altered the landscape for religious institutions in many postindustrial cities, with potentially serious implications for communities that ostensibly stand to benefit from their presence. In recent decades, changes in neighborhood racial composition and out‐migration to distant suburbs have divested many urban communities of once‐vibrant social institutions, among them places of worship. This article undertakes an empirical approach to examine the socioeconomic correlates of church closures in neighborhoods in a Midwestern U.S. metropolitan area. Utilizing an index of nine measures of social and economic viability, the study found that the type of congregational closure is significantly related to viability outcomes. In particular, the closure of geographically based congregations and those characterized by bridging social capital were significantly related to declines in neighborhood viability. Theoretical concepts from religious ecology, place attachment, and social capital/civic engagement structure the analysis.     

REGIONAL PARTNERSHIPS AND METROPOLITAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Regional partnerships have grown popular as mechanisms to address public goods that transcend local boundaries, but we know little about their effectiveness. For example, what impact do regional economic development partnerships (REDPs), cooperative organizations of local governments, nonprofits and business organizations have on the economies of metropolitan areas? This article employs survival analysis and multilevel growth curve models to examine how the emergence of regional partnership arrangements influences patterns of economic development in U.S. metropolitan areas. The results suggest that, whereas these organizations do not make a great difference in some metro areas, in densely populated and politically fragmented metropolitan areas personal incomes, business firms, and employment grew significantly with the emergence of REDPs. Furthermore, state level factors, such as intergovernmental grant funding, are found to have positive influences. In conclusion, we discuss regional partnerships as solutions to institutional collective action problems in economic development and other policy arenas.     

Measuring Neighborhood Diversity and Stability in Home‐Buying: Examining Patterns by Race and Income in a Robust Housing Market

Abstract: In recent years, there has been continued interest in prospects for the development and sustainability of both mixed‐income and racially diverse communities. We examine an important contributor to racial and economic diversity and segregation—the geographic patterns of homebuyers. In particular, we examine the extent to which neighborhoods within the Chicago metropolitan area have obtained significant levels of income and racial diversity in home buying and maintained such diversity over the 1990s. We analyze the racial and income composition of homebuyers by census tract for two periods: 1993 to 1994 and 1999 to 2000. First, by comparing changes in home buying to 1990 to 2000 changes in cross‐sectional census data, we find that changes in home‐buying patterns are significant contributors to neighborhood racial change. We then find a significant decline in the proportion of whites buying into neighborhoods where nearly all buyers are white. The policy implications of our findings are described and discussed.     

HOMEOWNERSHIP AND NEIGHBORHOOD SATISFACTION AMONG LOW‐ AND MODERATE‐INCOME HOUSEHOLDS

ABSTRACT: Most research on homeownership is conducted on nationally representative samples of homeowners and fails to isolate the unique experience of low‐ and moderate‐income (LMI) homeowners. Given the interest of policymakers in promoting homeownership among LMI households over the past 20 years, along with the apparent role played by risky borrowers—many of whom are low‐income—in the current housing market crisis, it is important to evaluate both economic and social outcomes for this subgroup of homeowners. Using a matched set of LMI owners and renters in the 2007 Community Advantage Program (CAP) panel, we assess the effect of homeownership on neighborhood satisfaction. By including various individual and neighborhood characteristics as covariates, we employ multilevel modeling and propensity score matching to address the nested structure of the data and endogeneity issues. Findings indicate that homeownership is an important predictor of neighborhood satisfaction among LMI households, even when controlling for a host of socioeconomic, demographic, and neighborhood characteristics. This may suggest that homeownership can serve as a viable way to improve neighborhood satisfaction among LMI households. This is important as neighborhood satisfaction is highly associated with overall quality of life.     

The spatial dynamics of neighborhood change: exploring spatial dependence in neighborhood housing value change

This study examined spatial dependence in neighborhood change between 1990 and 2010 in the largest 100 metropolitan areas in the U.S. By analyzing neighborhood housing value change, this study found that there is considerable spatial autocorrelation in neighborhood change. Neighborhoods form spatial clusters in neighborhood housing value and its change. The spatial analysis also showed that there was a persistent spatial inequality between the city and suburbs but that this spatial inequality has declined over time. Finally, this study suggests that coordinating community development efforts with surrounding neighborhoods rather than taking isolated actions can result in more successful outcomes.     

Urban sprawl and land conversion in post-socialist cities: The case of metropolitan Budapest

Former state-socialist cities were described by the literature as compact and relatively dense urban forms. However, the political transition of 1989–90 has changed the spatial characteristics of these cities, partly due to urban sprawl. Yet, we do not know if such a phenomenon as “sprawl” did exist before 1989. The main aim of this paper is to assess urban expansion in the metropolitan region of Budapest during state-socialism and after the political changes, and measure the intensity of urban sprawl. The main thesis is that urban sprawl did not start with the advent of market forces in 1989–90, but it was already present during state-socialism, however the tempo of sprawl was considerably increased by suburbanization, the dominant form of urban expansion, after 1990. In order to explore the longitudinal land use changes in the Budapest metropolitan region we analyse standardised databases and maps (e.g. military topographic map from 1959, Corine Land Cover database from 1990 and European Urban Atlas from 2012). The discussion is focused, on the one hand, on the growth of urbanized land as an outcome of urban sprawl and the main underpinning factors in different epochs and, on the other hand, on the main driving forces of suburbanization and sprawl. Research results clearly show that urban sprawl has intensified around Budapest after the political changes. This was the result of a complex interplay of socio-economic and political factors, a process driven by the free movement of residents, firms, as well as the reshuffle of the regulatory framework. The study demonstrates that urban sprawl has several negative impacts on social, economic and environmental sustainability in the investigated metropolitan region, which is in line with findings of the literature.     

Proposing new measures of employment deconcentration and spatial dispersion across metropolitan areas in the US

A well-known challenge is measuring employment concentration across metropolitan areas and analysing the evolving spatial structure. We introduce a new approach that avoids identifying “job centres” and conceptualizes the distribution of employment based on two dimensions: (1) employment deconcentration; and (2) spatial dispersion of high employment locations. We apply this framework to study 329 US metropolitan regions based on 1 sq km. grid cells. We find diverse trajectories of metropolitan restructuring between 2000 and 2010, and substantial variation across regions in employment concentration. The new framework enables researchers to compare metropolitan regions to gain insights into the dynamic nature of metropolitan spatial structure.     

The Spatial Pattern of Low Income Housing Tax Credit Properties: Implications for Fair Housing and Poverty Deconcentration Policies

Problem, research strategy, and findings: Housing policies of the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) emphasize the spatial dispersal of housing assistance to promote fair housing objectives. The Low Income Housing Tax Credit (LIHTC) program, the nation's largest affordable housing subsidy program, is not administered by HUD and therefore is not closely monitored for compliance with dispersal objectives. Using spatial point pattern analyses, I identify the geographic extent of LIHTC property clustering, characterize the local clustering of individual properties and explore the determinants of local clustering within the nation's largest metropolitan areas. In most metropolitan areas, LIHTC properties are more highly clustered than multifamily housing units, although the extent of clustering differs by metropolitan area. Clustered LIHTC properties tend to be located in more densely developed central-city locations that have higher poverty rates and higher minority concentrations.

Takeaway for practice: To encourage more affordable housing construction within areas that offer greater economic and social opportunities to LHTC residents, policymakers should 1) provide incentives to locate LIHTC properties within high-opportunity areas, 2) eliminate current incentives to cluster housing in areas with inherently higher poverty and minority concentrations (Qualified Census Tracts and Difficult Development Areas), and 3) enhance coordination between HUD and the Department of the Treasury to implement federal fair housing goals.     

Neighborhood Transitions in Multiethnic/Racial Contexts

ABSTRACT: Several recent analyses have suggested that the old model of neighborhood transition no longer holds true in large metropolitan areas in the late 20th century. The argument follows that there are increasing instances of neighborhood ethnic stability. A test of this hypothesis in the Los Angeles metropolitan area with 1990 census data at both the tract and block level suggests considerable caution in accepting the notion of stable racially mixed neighborhoods. The rate of succession seems to be related to overall levels of demographic change and the level of multiethnic integration, by at least one measure, is quite low.     

A Tale of Two Cities: Physical Form and Neighborhood Satisfaction in Metropolitan Portland and Charlotte

Problem: Literature advocating compact development and mixed uses frequently claims that this form of development supports a higher quality of life, yet the empirical basis for this claim is weak.

Purpose: I assess the relationship between physical form and quality of life using neighborhood satisfaction as an empirical definition of quality of life.

Methods: I examine the effects of block and neighborhood housing density, land use mix, the mix of housing structure types, and street network connectivity on residents' ratings of neighborhood satisfaction. Using a multilevel dataset that combines individual household information with neighborhood contextual variables, I compare the Charlotte, North Carolina and Portland, Oregon metropolitan statistical areas (MSAs), which have very different development patterns and land use policies.

Results and conclusions: At the neighborhood level, I find density and mixed land uses to be associated with higher neighborhood satisfaction in Portland, but lower neighborhood satisfaction in Charlotte. At the block level, however, I find blocks that are exclusively single family detached housing to be associated with higher neighborhood satisfaction in both MSAs. These findings suggest that the influence of compact development and mixed uses on residents' quality of life depends upon the context, and may be sensitive to the spatial scales at which urban form is examined.

Takeaway for practice: Planners should understand that strategies promoting compact development and mixed uses will have different consequences in different contexts, and should pay careful attention to the appropriate spatial scale for implementing such policies. I conclude that compact growth and mixed uses improve quality of life by contributing to higher levels of neighborhood satisfaction, though they may not succeed in low density metropolitan areas. I conclude that in considering such development, planners should: rely on evidence to identify appropriate strategies; learn how to create conditions that foster urban amenities and discourage urban problems; pay attention to factors that complement the appeal of compact and mixed environments; and consider the possibility that the market will not tolerate mixing different housing types at a fine grain for the purpose of achieving higher density and diversity.

Research support: This research was supported by a dissertation research grant from the Department of Housing and Urban Development and the Department of City and Regional Planning, Cornell University.     

促进城市的可持续发展:多维度、多尺度的城市形态研究——中美城市形态研究的综述及启示

自20世纪80年代中期开始,人们对城市土地粗放利用、空间无序蔓延的批判和反思,以及对精明城市形态的寻求,重新引起了美国城市规划者和政策制定者对城市形态的研究兴趣.本文综述了美国和中国城市形态研究的主要文献,认为中国的城市形态研究目前主要分别集中于城市地理学、城市规划、建筑和城市设计等领域,尚未进行跨领域的研究.而从过去20多年美国相关研究进展来看,美国的城市形态研究趋向于多尺度下的多维度形态识别,即可分为景观生态、城市经济、城市交通、城市社区以及城市设计等五个维度,分别对应大区域、大都市区、次区域、社区和街区等五个尺度.这些多维度、多尺度的城市形态研究成果对制定城市公共政策有直接相关意义.美国城市形态研究的最新进展不仅可以为中国城市形态研究提供启示,也将为21世纪中国城市塑造更健康、可持续的城市形态提供借鉴.     

MINORITIES ON THE MARGINS? THE SPATIAL ORGANIZATION OF FRINGE BANKING SERVICES

ABSTRACT: Case studies in select large cities have found that fringe services, including payday lenders, check cashers, pawn brokers, and money transmittal companies are more geographically accessible to predominantly minority neighborhoods while traditional banks are more accessible to white neighborhoods. However, many analyses are bivariate rather than multivariate and do not disentangle the influence of neighborhood socioeconomic status from that of race. Furthermore, the fringe services industry contends that market factors, such as zoning, arterials, population base, and commercial activity influence location. This study employs geographic information systems (GIS) and multiple regression to untangle the spatial relationship between minority communities and traditional and fringe banks in four small‐to‐moderate‐sized metropolitan areas. We find that, though market factors are indeed powerful determinants of fringe bank location, there are nonetheless persistent ethnic effects in two of the four cities and these effects cannot be attributed to factors correlated with a large minority presence.     

REGULATING SCARCITY: THE EFFECTS OF ZONING ON URBAN LAND MARKET CHANGES

This paper explores the dynamics between zoning, land values and neighborhood change from 1960 to 1970. Using a sample of 352 central city and suburban census tracts contained within the Chicago SMSA, this paper examines the influence of zoning on neighborhood land value appreciation and the independent effects of land values and zoning on neighborhood housing changes. Findings show that zoning influenced land value appreciation over the decade within both central city and suburban areas. Central city zoning and land values operated jointly to influence neighborhood housing changes while in suburban areas, zoning mechanisms overrode market forces in influencing neighborhood development patterns. This paper demonstrates the forcefulness of the politics of the urban land market in regulating both land scarcity and land value changes and in influencing metropolitan spatial distributions.     

MIXED‐INCOME HOUSING AND NEIGHBORHOOD INTEGRATION: EVIDENCE FROM INCLUSIONARY ZONING PROGRAMS

Using propensity score matching and regression techniques, together with an original database of approximately 12,000 inclusionary zoning (IZ) units built in Montgomery County, Maryland and Suffolk County, New York, this article comparatively analyzes the effect of IZ programs on racial and income integration and neighborhood change at the census tract level between 1980 and 2000. In particular, the article explores the question of whether IZ programs encourage stable neighborhood integration over time. This analysis fills a gap in the current empirical literature on the effect of IZ programs on neighborhood change and integration, an original policy goal that has not been evaluated previously due to data limitations. The findings indicate that the effect of IZ units on neighborhood racial and income transition is dependent on the siting of IZ units, the initial characteristics of the neighborhoods in which they are built, and the institutional framework of the IZ program. In the aggregate, IZ units positively affect the level of both racial and income integration in neighborhoods where units are built, although stark differences emerge between the two study areas. The findings do reveal the potential for IZ programs to exacerbate existing concentrations of poverty and patterns of residential racial segregation.     

Planning in Metropolitan Sub–Regions: an Adelaide Comment

Abstract

This article suggests that the role and function of regional organizations, each covering a part of the metropolitan area, are changing over time and that significant contributions could be made by them in the areas of economic and urban development. In particular it is argued that in Adelaide, the evolution of the institutional and political framework or regional organizations provides an ideal vehicle for such a bottom-up approach. After a brief review of all the metropolitan regional organizations of councils, this article exemplifies this argument through the Northern sub-region. It provides an accompaniment to the paper concerned with the economic analysis of Northern Adelaide.     

The (ir)relevance of economic segregation. Jane Jacobs and the empirical and moral implications of an unequal spatial distribution of wealth

Cities are economically segregated to various degrees. Segregation translates into greater homogeneity of neighborhoods: the rich and the poor usually occupy separate parts of the city. In response, urban-renewal policies often focus on creating an economically more heterogeneous neighborhood composition by replacing lower-income with middle-income households. Arguably with little or mixed success, as those policies seem to focus more on places (i.e. neighborhoods) than on the people who live there. In this regard, Jane Jacobs writings on “slums” and the conditions that favor “unslumming” processes are illuminating. Although in the last decades the word slum has gotten out of fashion (at least in developed countries), her contributions remain relevant in order to address the moral and empirical implications of an unequal spatial distribution of wealth. The paper discusses three aspects of Jacobs' writings and develops them further into three reflections on current ideas about segregation and policies trying to combat that. It concludes that debates and policies may benefit from 1) less focus on the economic differences between neighborhoods (and more on the living standard of each neighborhood and the people who live there); 2) more attention to the neighborhood population's own regenerating and development potential rather than the negative effects of segregation processes on neighborhood residents; and 3) a dynamic rather than static view on the neighborhood.