Independence and resistance to perceptual field forces.

36 "independents" and 36 "yielders" were selected from the extremes of a distribution of 143 Ss scored on an inventory measure of conformity. While looking at a Necker reversible cube Ss were instructed to keep the perspective in the "up" phase. At random intervals Ss recorded the actual phase perceived. The "independents" had fewer reversals of perspective than the "yielders" (p     

Effects of intermittent and continuous token reinforcement on bus ridership.

The following conditions were successively instituted on an experimental bus (the 11:00 AM–2:00 PM daily operation of a campus bus): baseline, VR-3 token reinforcement (every 3rd passenger, on the average, received a token worth about 10 cents for boarding the bus), continuous token reinforcement (every passenger received a token), VR-3 token reinforcement, and baseline. Compared to the experimental controls, experimental bus ridership increased significantly during token reinforcement manipulations. There was no difference in the effects of VR-3 and continuous token reinforcement. Results suggest that compared to continuous token reinforcement, intermittent token reinforcement may provide a viable and economical appproach to increasing bus ridership. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The cellblock token economy: token reinforcement procedures in a maximum security correctional institution for adult male felons

Two experiments were conducted (1) to explore the application of token reinforcement procedures in a maximum security correctional institution for adult male felons and (2) to determine to what extent the reinforcement procedures disrupted the day-to-day lives of inmate participants. In Experiment 1, an expanded reversal design revealed that the combination of praise and token reinforcement was more effective than the combinations of praise and noncontingent token award or direct commands on four common institutional activities. The latter two combinations were not found to be any more effective than praise alone. Experiment 2, which also employed a reversal design, indicated that the high levels of performance observed during the token reinforcement phases of Experiment 1 could be attained without subjecting participants to undue hardship in the form of increased deprivation of either social intercourse or the opportunity to engage in recreational and entertainment activities. Client safeguards are discussed in detail.     

Token rewards may lead to token learning.

Questions the widespread use of tokens to effect desired changes in behavior. Analysis of data from attribution-type research demonstrates that learning to perform an activity on the basis of external, token reinforcement does not generalize to natural reinforcement but leads, instead, to a decrease of intrinsic interest in the activity. Withdrawal of the token reinforcement often reduces performance. This may be because the generalization paradigm used is often either a discrimination or an extinction paradigm. It is suggested that employment of token reinforcement be restricted to situations in which an important behavior has a low base-rate of occurrence. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of catecholaminergic drugs on systems of reward and punishment in experiments on cats

A common assumption in special education is that temporal limits for a task should be expanded so that ample time is provided for completing the work. This study describes the opposite strategy of restricting temporal limits to augment academic performance. Three educable retarded children received token reinforcement contingent on the number of correct math problems answered during daily sessions. A reversal design was used to assess the effects of an abrupt reduction in time limits (20-5-20 min) and a graduated sequence of reductions (20-15-10-5-20 min). The graduated sequence resulted in rate increases of correct responding ranging from 125% to 266% and these gains endured when temporal limits were again expanded. In contrast, the abrupt shift produced interfering emotional behaviors and rate decreases in academic performance of 25% to 80%. The findings indicate that systematically restricting temporal limits for an academic task can further enhance the performance of slow learners already maintained by a token system.     

Token rewards and straw men.

Commends F. M. Levine and G. Fasnacht's (see record 1975-07966-001) article on the application of behavior modification principles but disagrees with their position on token withdrawal. It is argued that token reinforcement programs must individually self-destruct on a short-term basis if they are to survive in any extended sense. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Use of concrete reinforcement to facilitate verbal initiations in adolescent group therapy.

Administered token reinforcement to 6 disturbed hospitalized adolescents contingent upon their emission of verbal initiations in group therapy. Results support the hypothesis that adolescents who are typically nonverbal and considered poor candidates for verbal-type psychotherapy can be shaped into emitting a substantially higher rate of verbal initiations. Reversal procedures demonstrated the expected extinction effects. The procedures were successful enought so that typical "silent" Ss were reappraised in terms of their verbal potential. Once the rate of initiations increased, peer group pressure used social reinforcement to bring about a decrease in silly, off-topic verbalizations and a subsequent increase of initiations which were appropriate and relevant to the interests of the group. (19 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Some antitherapeutic effects of the token economy: a case in point

This paper deals with some of the complaints of patients and difficulties in treatment which arose on a psychiatric ward which was administered as a token economy. Most evaluations of token economies have been made by advocates of the technique and have selected specific behaviors as "targets" for reinforcement. I do not wish to engage in polemics regarding the relative worth of behavioral and psychodynamic theories of treatment, but this paper reflects my own misgivings about certain aspects of the token economy and is concerned more with the quality of the ward atmosphere it creates than with specific behavior changes. I will describe the difficulties encountered on a single ward because I suspect that such difficulties, while perhaps ubiquitous to psychiatric wards and mental hospitals, are amplified within the token economy to the detriment of patient care. My purposes in this paper, then, are twofold: to present and briefly analyze several recurrent problems on a token economy within a wider context of events than is typical for such discussions; and to provoke advocates of the token economy system to consider the possibility that their favorite treatment modality may actually limit the potential for therapy. In fulfilling these purposes, I shall also be making reference to some psychiatric literature, now fifteen to twenty years old, which has struggled with similar problems with partial success, and of which psychologists and younger psychiatrists are too often unaware.     

Toward a more rigorous definition of social reinforcement: Some interpersonal clarifications.

Some researchers define social reinforcers procedurally (i.e., a priori), thereby ignoring Skinner's (1953) admonition to define reinforcers emprirically. The present study compared "popular" and "interpersonal" concepts of reinforcement under conditions in which the 2 concepts imply different reinforcers. Confederates responded to hostile-dominant statements by 20 8–14 yr old boys with either friendly-submissive (popular) or hostile-submissive (complementary) statements. Results suggest that behavioral complementarity may be applied to predict both social reinforcers and "antidotes" and support the existence of coplementary behavioral relationships. Simply equating social reinforcement with friendly behavioral consequences is inadequate to explain the spectrum of behaviors found to be reinforcing. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Language-naive chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) judge relations between relations in a conceptual matching-to-sample task.

Three chimpanzees with a history of conditional and numeric token training spontaneously matched relations between relations under conditions of nondifferential reinforcement. Heretofore, this conceptual ability was demonstrated only in language-trained chimpanzees. The performance levels of the language-naive animals in this study, however, were equivalent to those of a 4th animal—Sarah—whose history included language training and analogical problem solving. There was no evidence that associative factors mediated successful performance in any of the animals. Prior claims of a profound disparity between language-trained and language-naive chimpanzees apparently can be attributed to prior experience with arbitrary tokens consistently associated with abstract relations and not language per se. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Teaching self-control to disruptive children.

Taught 8 9-10 yr old disruptive males in an after-school remedial reading class to match teachers' evaluations of their behavior in the context of a token reinforcement program. Initially, a standard, teacher-administered token program was implemented; disruptive behavior was markedly reduced and academic output increased. Ss were then taught that they could earn bonus points for matching a teacher's evaluation of their academic effort and social behavior. The checking of the Ss was gradually eliminated until there was no point consequence for overevaluation or underevaluation; only praise for matching the teacher evaluation continued. During the time when teaching of self-evaluation was initiated and even after all point loss or gain was removed for overevaluation or underevaluation, Ss maintained very low levels of disruptive behavior and high rates of academic output. Generalization of appropriate behavior was obtained at times of the day when the token program was not in effect. (17 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Token reinforcement and response cost procedures: Reducing the disruptive behavior of preschool children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

Compared the effects of a token reinforcement and a response cost intervention in reducing the disruptive behavior of 4 preschool children (aged 4.3–5 yrs old) with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The results of a single-subject withdrawal design counterbalanced between Ss showed that both interventions were effective in reducing disruptive student behavior. Both interventions were rated as highly acceptable by the children's preschool teachers, although the teachers expressed a preference for response cost. Implications of the results are discussed for future research and practice. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Improvement in appearance and grooming in a token-economy setting as a function of reinforcement contingency.

16 retarded adult female patients, resident on a ward with an ongoing token economy, were checked daily for personal appearance and grooming over a period of 12 wk. Their performance under contingent and noncontingent reinforcement was examined. It is concluded that some aspect of checking procedure plays a considerable part in improvement, although a significant contingency effect is also found. (French summary) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Functionally Graded Al Alloy Matrix <Emphasis Type="Italic">In-Situ</Emphasis> Composites

In the present work, functionally graded (FG) aluminum alloy matrix in-situ composites (FG-AMCs) with TiB₂ and TiC reinforcements were synthesized using the horizontal centrifugal casting process. A commercial Al-Si alloy (A356) and an Al-Cu alloy were used as matrices in the present study. The material parameters (such as matrix and reinforcement type) and process parameters (such as mold temperature, mold speed, and melt stirring) were found to influence the gradient in the FG-AMCs. Detailed microstructural analysis of the composites in different processing conditions revealed that the gradients in the reinforcement modify the microstructure and hardness of the Al alloy. The segregated in-situ formed TiB₂ and TiC particles change the morphology of Si particles during the solidification of Al-Si alloy. A maximum of 20 vol pct of reinforcement at the surface was achieved by this process in the Al-4Cu-TiB₂ system. The stirring of the melt before pouring causes the reinforcement particles to segregate at the periphery of the casting, while in the absence of such stirring, the particles are segregated at the interior of the casting.     

Rigidity, negative reaction tendencies, and cosatiation effects in normal and feebleminded children.

"Feebleminded and normal children played three pre-experimental games under two conditions of reinforcement, followed by a two-part experimental task given under a support condition." Ss were allowed to play to satiation under the 2 conditions. Hypotheses were generated based upon the supposition that "cosatiation score is a measure of motivational determinants rather than… of the inherent rigidity of individuals. The results in general supported this." From Psyc Abstracts 36:04:4JI20S. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Adjusting to changes in the time of reinforcement: Peak interval transitions in rats.

Thirty rats received training on a peak-interval procedure, where a baseline with an 20-s time of reinforcement was interspersed among cyclic transition to other reinforcement time values (10, 20, 30, or 40 s), each of which was either in force for only a single session or for 3 sessions. Peak times were close to the time of reinforcement on the 20-s baseline and tracked the new reinforcement times both closely (but not exactly) and very rapidly. Peak time during transitions was affected by the criterion value in force on the previous session, exhibiting a proactive interference effect. Analysis of individual peak times during a session showed that transitions from lower to higher reinforcement time values were usually characterized by abrupt jumps in peak time, whereas descending transitions were mostly smooth but rapid. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Operant-interpersonal treatment for marital discord.

Operant-interpersonal treatment of marital discord is premised on the assumption that successful marriages differ from unsuccessful marriages in frequency and range of reciprocal positive reinforcements exchanged. Behavior change objectives are clarified, and a 4-step treatment approach culminating in an exchange of positive responses on a reciprocal basis is suggested. The treatment of 4 couples complaining of low-rate conversational and sexual behavior is summarized, stressing the use of a token system as a prosthesis to facilitate the transition to increased positive reinforcement. (32 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Repetition blindness between visually different items: the case of pictures and words

Repetition blindness (RB) is the failure to see or recall the second of two visually similar or identical items in rapid serial visual presentation. It was initially demonstrated by Kanwisher (1987), who proposed that a second token of a given word or object type cannot be established when the two items occur close in time. Bavelier and Potter (1992) showed that RB also occurs between visually different items that are phonologically similar. They proposed that RB may occur not only when the targets are physically similar, but also when they have to be registered or encoded in short-term memory (STM) along dimensions on which they are similar. This hypothesis predicts that RB between visually different items should not be restricted to words, but should occur with any stimuli, as long as the task requires these stimuli to be encoded along dimensions on which they are similar. Moreover, it also implies that a task that changes the preferred code of targets will affect the size of RB. The first prediction was confirmed by establishing RB between phonologically similar pictures and words, whether semantically related (the picture of a cat and the word "cat") or not (the picture of a sun and the word "son"), when using a task that requires phonological encoding (Experiments 1 and 2). The second prediction was also supported: the magnitude of RB depended on whether the task required similar or different codes for pictures and words (Experiments 3 and 4). These experiments confirm that RB between visually different items is due to the similarity of the codes initially used in STM. The results suggest that RB can occur at any step during the instantiation of a token, arising not only from a failure to create a new token, but also from a failure to stabilize an opened token. In this view, tokens are to be seen as dynamical entities, built over time as a function of type activation and task requirements, and varying in stability as a function of the information that is entered into them.     

Token reinforcements in the shaping of children's mealtime behaviour.

Shaping and subsequent extinction of acceptable mealtime behavior through selective token reinforcement was attempted with institutionalized, emotionally disturbed children. Results suggested the feasibility of utilizing individual judgements by staff personnel in behavior shaping and dispensing of reinforcements. In addition, control of mealtime behavior in some children was seen to vary as a function of the presentation or withholding of tokens. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A motivational environment for behaviorally deviant junior high school students

A contingency management program was established in a junior high school to better manage and educate students having histories of severe misconduct. School administration selected 46 eighth-graders having multiple suspensions for misbehavior. Students (N = 32) in two of the schools remained in traditional programs, serving as controls, whereas students (N = 14) in the third school participated in a token reinforcement program. Reinforcers provided in the afternoon were contingent upon achievement and discipline during morning academic periods. Home-based reinforcers were established to support school behavior. Compared with the control group, significant reductions in negative school behavior as well as greater increases in academic achievement were obtained for the treatment group, thus supporting the efficacy of contingency management for adolescents school misbehavior.