Cognitive and motivational parallels in moral development.

Two experiments examined parallels between L. Kohlberg's (1963, 1976) cognitive developmental stages and a hierarchy of incentives (motivations) based on Kohlberg's "motives for moral action" aspect. In Exp I, 134 undergraduates were simultaneously administered 2 perceptual motor tasks in 1 of 3 treatment conditions. In each treatment the opportunity for greater monetary reward on one task conflicted with one of the following incentives for performance on the other task: (a) interpersonal approval, (b) meeting the expectations of authority, and (c) choice in favor of distributive equality. As predicted by Kohlberg's moral judgment scale, Stage 3 Ss performed better for the interpersonal approval incentive, while Stage 4 Ss performed better to meet the expectations of authority. Postconventional Ss responded in favor of distributive equality to a greater extent than conventional (Stage 3 or Stage 4) Ss. Exp II included only Stage 3 and Stage 4 Ss and conflicted interpersonal approval directly with the expectations of authority. Results closely replicate those of Exp I. (French summary) (7 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of stereotypes in decision making and information-processing strategies.

Investigated the effects of stereotyping on reactions to a behavioral transgression and the recall of information bearing on it in 2 experiments with 112 undergraduates. Ss read a case file describing a transgression (a job-related infraction in Exp I, a criminal act in Exp II) committed by a target. In some cases, the target's transgression was stereotypic of the target's ethnic group (conveyed through his name), and in other cases it was not. After reading the case file, Ss judged the likelihood that the transgression would recur and recommended punishment for the offense. These judgment data supported the hypothesis that stereotypes function as judgmental heuristics. Ss used a stereotype of the target to infer the reasons for the transgression and based their punishment decisions on the implications of these inferences, considering other relevant information only when a stereotype-based explanation of the behavior was not available. However, recall data suggest that, once a stereotype-based impression of the crime and its determinants was formed, Ss reviewed other available information to confirm the implications of this impression. This led to differential recall of presented information, depending on whether its implications were consistent with, inconsistent with, or irrelevant to those of the stereotype. (43 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Moral reasoning and moral concerns: An alternative to Gilligan's gender based hypothesis.

Studied the differences in moral orientation in terms of gender specific modes of reasoning, in 2 experiments. In Exp 1, 32 Ss (aged 24–55 yrs) were read the "Heinz dilemma," and asked 3 questions regarding it. Deliberative and justificatory strategies were identified on the basis of the presence or absence of the higher level knowledge structures. In Exp 2, 40 undergraduates were presented with "Michael and Kohlberg Heinz dilemma," followed by a set of relevant questions. Male Ss preferred to apply a norm or rule in their solutions, while females rejected the application of a norm and sought alternative solutions. This was replicated in Exp 2, but the pattern was reversed with female Ss preferring to apply a norm. Males were divided in their use of either strategy indicating that although, genders differed in their judgments as to which norms or rules to apply; once adopted, norms and rules were used in similar ways. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of intensities of punishment upon children's subsequent moral judgments of behavior.

Administered either high or low punishments in the form of candy removal to 24 1st and 2nd graders ostensibly for their performance on a keypressing task. Punishment was actually presented according to a preprogrammed schedule independent of the S's responding. Interspersed with these trials, stories were told about children who resisted temptations, and the Ss assigned rewards or punishments to these characters. Following high punishment, the Ss punished the characters less frequently and intensely than after low punishment. Since modeling and reward-deservedness explanations are untenable in this study, the results are interpreted in terms of image improvement. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mind over matter: Perceived success at psychokinesis.

Four experiments with 212 undergraduates showed that Ss' estimates of success on a psychokinetic (PK) task were independent of actual performance. In Exp I, Ss given a positive introductory set or no set about PK evidenced more illusory control than Ss given a negative set. In Exp II, both degree of general belief in psychic phenomena and the number of practice trials that Ss received influenced performance estimates, with high believers who received 10 practice trials providing the highest estimates and low believers who received 1 practice trial the lowest. In Exp III, Ss actively involved with the PK task judged their performance more positively than passively involved Ss. Exp IV showed that when they were actively involved in the task, Ss with an internal locus of control (Rotter's Internal–External Locus of Control Scale) gave higher estimates of their success than Ss with an external locus of control. When passively involved, internals and externals did not reliably differ in their estimates, but their estimates were lower in those of active/internals. Results support E. J. Langer's illusion-of-control theory and highlight the importance of general psychic belief and locus-of-control orientation in affecting perceived success at a psychic task. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Conceptual automaticity in recognition memory: Levels-of-processing effects on familiarity.

Examined the effect of level of processing (LP) on recognition memory using 2 response-signal delays (RSD; 500 and 1500 msec). In Exp 1, LP (semantic or nonsemantic) and RSD were manipulated between 24 college students. In Exp 2, orienting task (pleasantness rating or letter judgment) and RSD were manipulated among 32 Ss. In Exp 3, study orientation and test instructions (inclusion or exclusion) were within-S factors, and RSD was a between-S factor. 32 Ss were included in Exp 3. In Exp 1, a modality effect was found for fast responses. The LP was reliable at both points in time. In Exp 2, fast responses were associated with significantly more "false-alarms" to words encoded semantically than those encoded nonsemantically. In Exp 3, both recollection and familiarity estimates were elevated by prior conceptual processing. Estimates of recollection were affected by RSD. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of experimental socialization paradigms upon two moral responses to transgression.

In an initial experiment on the antecedents of self-criticism and reparation, 57 5th-grade girls were equally assigned to 2 treatments: High Cognitive Structure High Control and Low Cognitive Structure-Low Control. Each S was repeatedly punished for an aggressive act on 10 training trials. On the test trial, a more destructive act was contrived to elicit internalized moral responses. In a 2nd experiment, using the same techniques but designed to distinguish independent antecedents, 68 5th-grade boys were equally assigned to each of 4 treatments: High Cognitive Structure-High Control, High Cognitive Structure-Low Control, Low Cognitive Structure-High Control, and Low Cognitive Structure-Low Control. Induction of self-criticism was significantly related to E's cognitive structuring during training. Reparative responses were a function of whether S or E controlled punishment. The 2 moral responses were concluded to be the consequences of distinct patterns of social reinforcement and not attributable to a unitary entity such as "conscience" or "superego." (33 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Acquired equivalence and distinctiveness in matching to sample by pigeons: Mediation by reinforcer-specific expectancies.

Assessed the ability of a reinforcer to mediate an association between 2 stimuli that independently predict the occurrence of that reinforcer (acquired equivalence of cues). In Exp I, 12 male White Carneaux pigeons were trained on shape (plus and circle) and color (red and green) matching-to-sample tasks. Correct responses were systematically reinforced with corn on some trials and wheat on others to establish associations between 1 stimulus from each task and a "common" outcome. Following training, Ss were transferred to a symbolic matching-to-sample task wherein a stimulus from one training task was presented as the sample, and the stimuli from the other training task were presented as comparisons. In the 1st session, experimental Ss made significantly more correct responses than controls (i.e., Ss "matched" stimuli previously associated with a common outcome). Exp II with 18 Ss replicated this acquired equivalence effect and controlled for food preference. Delayed matching-to-sample training demonstrated enhanced memory performance for Ss exposed to different reinforcement contingencies, but this effect was confined to the shape task. Results indicate that a reinforcer can serve as the basis for organizing otherwise unpaired predictive cues in memory and that animals will selectively use differential expectancies as cues for solving complex discrimination tasks, depending on the difficulty of the discrimination. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Testing models of delayed sequence discrimination in pigeons: The advance key procedure.

In 2-event delayed sequence discrimination (DSD) training, one arrangement (temporal order) of 2 sample stimuli is the positive sequence and the remaining are the negative sequences for keypecking during a subsequent test stimulus. Three models of the DSD task were tested in 2 experiments with 8 White Carneaux pigeons. In Exp I Ss were allowed to terminate a trial by pecking the "advance key" during the sample stimuli or to let the test stimulus progress to the next trial. In the absence of a peck to the advance key, the trial continued to the completion of the test stimulus. In Exp II, Ss were forced to choose actively between advancing to the next trial and continuing through the current trial. Choice between the advance and continue keys was required with the occurrence of each of the successive sample stimuli and the test stimulus. Although the addition of forced choice resulted in more uniform effects, Ss were able to identify negative sample sequences with the occurrence of the 1st negative sample event in both experiments. Results support the prospective memory model but not the retrospective and hybrid models of temporal sequence recognition in the 2-event DSD task. (French abstract) (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Plans to resist distraction.

Conducted 2 experiments with a total of 71 preschoolers to investigate the effects of giving such Ss plans to resist distraction on their actual resistance in a subsequent work situation. A paradigm was developed in which the S, while motivated to work on a repetitive task, was exposed to a "Clown Box" which went through a standardized routine designed to distract the S from his work. The dependent variable assessed the amount of time the S worked in the E's absence. In Exp I, it was found, whether or not the Ss had rehearsed the actions called for in the plans, those who were given 3 plans for resistance worked longer than those who were not given plans. In Exp II it was found that Ss who were given only 1 plan worked as much as Ss who were given 3 plans, and more than Ss who were not given plans. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Pessimistic noise effects": The perception of reaction times in noise.

Used a between-group design to examine the effect of loud noise on a 2-choice discrete reaction task and the judgments Ss made about self-produced RTs under these conditions. In Exp I, 70 Ss (aged 26–39 yrs) completed a 2-choice RT task and a concurrent RT rating task of speed. White noise was presented to Ss in the experimental groups. RTs were unexpectedly faster in noise, but Ss used more "slow" categories in describing them. The effect was not apparent when the same RTs were rerated a 2nd time under instructions that indicated that they were random time intervals. Also, the effect was not apparent when a new group of 14 undergraduates in Exp II rated the original RT data, again in noise. Exp III showed that when asked to predict average RTs produced by a hypothetical S in noise, 30 uniformed Ss (aged 26–39 yrs) predicted slow RTs. Results are considered in the light of the hypothesis that pessimistic expectancies about likely effects of noise may be a factor influencing performance. (French abstract) (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Monitoring eye movements under conditions of associative matching, response production, and stimulus and response production.

Monitored eye movements in each of 3 studies with 20, 19, and 18 undergraduates, respectively, while Ss were given 8 study trials on a 7-item paired-associate list. Ss were then subjected to a single test trial of associative matching (Exp. I), response production (Exp. III) or stimulus and response production (Exp. IV). A 4th study with 42 Ss, (Exp. II), without eye movement monitoring, involved 3 groups of Ss given either 2, 4, or 6 study trials followed by a single test trial of associative matching. Results, with the exception of Exp. I, were generally consistent with a 2-stage notion of verbal paired-associate learning. (French summary) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of "voice" and peer opinions on responses to inequity.

Examined the effects of "voice" (participating in allocation decision making by expressing one's own opinion about the preferred allocation) on responses to an inequitable allocation. In addition to Ss' (82 female undergraduates) presence or absence of voice, Exp I manipulated (a) whether the allocation made by a "decision maker" (a confederate) was or was not made biased (due to self-interest) and (b) whether the S did or did not learn that a "co-worker" believed the allocation to be inequitable. Exp II, with 61 female high school students, manipulated presence/absence of voice and involved only a self-interested decision maker. In both experiments, the impact of voice was mediated by knowledge about the co-worker's opinion. When Ss had no knowledge about the co-worker's opinion (Exp I) or knew that the co-workers's opinion coincided with the decision maker's allocation (Exp II), there was evidence for a "fair process effect": Voice Ss expressed greater satisfaction than those with no voice. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stimulus specificity of physiological response to stress and the Type A coronary-prone behavior pattern.

Conducted 2 experiments with male undergraduates to determine the influence of stimulus specificity on differences in physiological response to stress of coronary-prone (Type A) and noncoronary-prone (Type B [Jenkins Activity Survey]) individuals. In Exp I, a RT task was presented to 51 Ss with and without stress relevant to the Type A behavior pattern. The physiological responses of Type A Ss were greater in the relevant stress compared to the neutral task condition, but responses of Type B Ss were similar in the 2 conditions. In Exp II, 25 Type A and Type B Ss performed a stressful task that was not theoretically relevant to the Type A behavior pattern. Physiological response elevations were found for both groups, but as predicted, there were no differences between Type A and Type B Ss. Results support the discriminant validity of the Type A construct and provide additional evidence for the role of physiological response differences as mediators of the behavior-pattern–disease relationship. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Consequences of responsiveness in dyadic interaction: Effects of probability of response and proportion of content-related responses on interpersonal attraction.

"Responsiveness" is defined in terms of 2 sequential response contingencies: (a) the probability with which each person in an interaction responds to the communicative behaviors of the other and (b) the proportion of responses that are related in content to the preceding behaviors of the other. Two experiments examined the effects of responsiveness in a verbal exchange on attraction. Under the guise of a study of the "acquaintanceship process," 176 male and female undergraduates exchanged information about themselves with another S (actually a same-sex confederate) by taking turns choosing and answering 1 of either 2 or 3 questions about themselves on each trial. For Exp I, Ss were required to answer on all trials, whereas the probability and frequency with which the confederate responded to the S were orthogonally manipulated. For Exp II, the proportion of content-related responses was varied. The confederate answered the same question as the S on either 80 or 20% of the trials. Both the probability of response and the proportion of content-related responses were positively related to (a) attraction to the confederate, (b) Ss' perceptions of the confederate's attraction to themselves, and (c) the degree to which Ss felt that they and the confederate had become acquainted with one another. (57 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Characteristics of interactional behavior in a psychotherapy analogue.

Ss discussed topics with an interviewer (I) whose comments were controlled by a motor response made by S. In Exp. I, there was less increase in silence over trials, more negative attitude toward the I, and longer delay after I responses when these were interpretations rather than reflections. With a choice between interpretation and reflection, several personality differences were found between Ss preferring one rather than the other of the two classes of I response. Ss in Exp. 1 requested an I response less frequently when he disagreed with them, but only under conditions in which Ss were told the I would try to influence them. Under influence instructions there was a positive correlation between frequency of I responses and negative attitude toward him. In Exp. 3, frequency of I response was maintained over trials only for Ss high on the Social Desirability Scale. The attitude of high SD Ss was more negative when emotional, rather than neutral, topics were discussed. (15 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Response prevention and extinction of escape behavior: Duration, frequency, similarity, and retraining variables in rats.

Describes 3 experiments in which a total of 158 female hooded rats received escape training, response prevention, and then regular extinction. Following training, Ss in Exp I received 1 response-prevention trial lasting 0, 120, 240, or 400 sec, or multiple trials (6, 12, or 20) lasting 20 sec each. Extinction was faster as prevention duration or frequency increased. At each duration, extinction was faster following multiple- than following single-prevention trials. In Exp II Ss received "prevention" in the original escape situation or in similar or dissimilar situations. Extinction was faster as prevention and training situations increased in similarity. To evaluate the persistence of prevention effects, in Exp III Ss received shock retraining between prevention and regular extinction. Retraining attenuated but did not eradicate the effects of prevention. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of personal values, perceived surveillance, and task labels on task preference: The ideology of turning play into work.

In Exp I, with 34 male and 26 female undergraduates, Ss who endorsed the work ethic spent more free-choice time performing the target activity that had been labeled as work than did Ss who opposed the work ethic. The effect was eliminated or reversed if the activity had been labeled as a leisure pastime. Exp II, with 19 male and 21 female undergraduates, demonstrated that the relation between personal values and task preference was mediated in some Ss by a belief that the experimenter would know what they did, whereas other Ss seemed unaffected by that belief. Implications for intrinsic motivation and for attitude-behavior consistency are discussed. In particular, "turning play into work" by means of explicit labels may increase intrinsic motivation among persons who truly value work. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Moral reasoning and attitudes toward capital punishment.

Addressed 3 aspects of L. Kohlberg's (1981, 1984) theory of moral development, specifically the relationship between (1) levels of moral reasoning used to support opposing positions on a moral problem (the structure issue); (2) moral stage, conceptual complexity, and attitudes about capital punishment (the form/content issue); and (3) moral orientations and attitudes about capital punishment (the orientation/content issue). A sample of 72 students (aged 17–45 yrs) completed a paragraph completion test (assessing conceptual complexity), wrote an essay on capital punishment (assessing moral stage and orientations), and responded to a capital punishment questionnaire (assessing attitudes). Results indicate that Ss at higher moral stages were increasingly complex and tended to oppose capital punishment. Ss did not always use higher moral reasoning to substantiate their own position on capital punishment; rather they used higher reasoning to oppose capital punishment. Also, Ss expressed considerations reflecting different orientations when supporting opposite positions on this moral problem. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Anchoring, efficacy, and action: The influence of judgmental heuristics on self-efficacy judgments and behavior.

Two experiments addressed relations between judgmental processes and action by examining both the impact of the anchoring/adjustment heuristic on judgments of performance capabilities and the subsequent impact of these self-efficacy judgments on behavior. In Exp I, 62 undergraduates judged their capabilities for performance on a problem-solving task after exposure to ostensibly random anchor values representing either high or low levels of performance. Ss in a control condition received no anchor values. Anchoring biases strongly affected self-efficacy judgments. High-anchor Ss evidenced the highest judgments of their capabilities and low-anchor Ss the lowest judgments. Ss then performed the task. Differences in task persistence paralleled the differences in self-efficacy judgments, with high-anchor Ss displaying the highest level of task persistence. Exp II, with 23 high school students, replicated these results. In both studies, self-efficacy was predictive of both between-group differences and variations in performance within the anchoring conditions. (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)