Growth and change in U.S. micropolitan areas

The U.S. Census Bureau has now recognized micropolitan places, which are sometimes called emerging metropolitan areas or mini-metros. After the 1990 census, a total of 581 different non-metropolitan counties, forming 496 consolidated micropolitan areas, were assigned to this new settlement category. The first half of the paper analyzes the evolving geographic distribution and the shifting employment attributes (emphasizing job specialization) of these places during 1980–2000. Changes in the U.S. micropolitan landscape, reflecting the impressive growth of these places during the late 20th century, mirror other well-known national demographic and economic trends. The second half of the paper analyzes simultaneous population and employment change in micropolitan counties, using a series of partial adjustment models that control for various demographic, economic, and geographic factors. Evidently (initial and adjusted) population levels have induced both employment and population change in these places, but employment levels have failed to have the same impact.

Planning and the Challenges of the Metropolitan Landscape: Innovation in the Netherlands

The physical appearance of the Netherlands is rapidly changing. The land of prosperous towns and villages embedded in rich, flat and open agricultural land is turning into a metropolis. A distinctive quality of this metropolis is the mix of highly urbanized centres and open, green areas that come in different shapes and sizes. But how to design an appropriate planning system for this environment? Mixing “red” (urban) and “green” (rural) land uses, for instance, now becomes problematic as Dutch spatial planning has always focused primarily on the urban domain whereas planning of green areas has its origins in agricultural land consolidation policy. A genuinely integrated approach to the planning of built-up areas and green areas in the open spaces is a distant ideal in this setting. In addition, the regional administrative level, being so important for metropolitan spatial challenges, needs reinforcing. The authors make a plea for a reframing of the notion of spatial planning at the national and provincial geographical and administrative scale. It takes a new object for planning, design and analysis to do the trick. The traditional rural–urban opposition is traded for “metropolitan landscape”, a new image reflecting the integration of built-up and non-built-up distinctively urban and rural land uses. Planning for the metropolitan landscape requires a reassignment of duties and responsibilities among national, provincial and municipal governments and other stakeholders.     

Land-use and land-cover change and its environmental implications in a tropical highland watershed,Ethiopia

This study analysed long-term land-use and land-cover change (LUCC) in a highland watershed covering an area of about 154?km² in the Blue Nile basin of Ethiopia. Two sets of panchromatic aerial photographs (1957 and 1982) and a Landsat TM image (2001) were the main input data from which three land-use and land-cover maps were produced by employing geographical information systems/remote sensing techniques. These data were complemented by some socio-economic data that were generated by using household survey, key-informant interview and group discussion methods. The results show that in regard to land-use and land-cover, the major change has been the reduction of areas under natural vegetation cover and expansion of open grassland, cultivated areas and settlements. Over the four and a half decades considered, areas of forest and dense tree cover and shrub grassland decreased by 64 and 6%, respectively. Forest and dense tree cover experienced the greatest change; from accounting for ～9% of the total area of the watershed in 1957 to only ～3% in 2001. In general, much of the de-vegetation occurred between 1982 and 2001. Cropland and rural settlement showed a small but consistent increase between 1957 and 2001. Riparian vegetation decreased during the first period, but increased almost to the same level during the second period by gaining land from the other land-use and land-cover types. The observed LUCCs were driven by a combination of proximate and underlying causes. These include increasing demographic pressure and associated demands on environmental resources, widespread rural poverty and inadequate management of common property resources owing to poorly defined ownership arrangements. There is a need for short-term and long-term strategies to ensure sustainable land management and agricultural development in the watershed.     

Uncertain economic growth and sprawl: evidence from a stochastic growth approach

This paper examines how the volatility of local economies, represented by uncertainty over future land rents, affects urban sprawl. We develop a theoretic model that links sprawl to shocks to expected rent from future land development, among other factors. The econometric analysis draws upon panel data from US metropolitan areas. To measure urban sprawl, we construct a distinctive measure that captures the distribution of population density within metropolitan areas. Using a proxy for uncertainty over future land rents, we confirm the theoretic prediction that across US metropolitan areas, higher levels of uncertainty are associated with lower levels of sprawl.     

Large-scale Spatial Patterns in Species Richness of Orthoptera in the Greater London Area,United Kingdom: Relationships with Land Cover

This paper explores species richness of insects of the order Orthoptera (grasshoppers, crickets, etc.) along spatial gradients defined using remotely sensed land cover data for an area of 5600?km² centred on the city of London. The number of species within grid-squares of a national atlas, controlled for recording effort, declined along composite multivariate spatial gradients representing landscapes with increasing dominance of arable and urban land uses, yet was uncorrelated with the area of an individual land cover representing cultivated land, and only weakly correlated with a second land cover representing urban development. Few orthopteran species reside directly within either arable crops or non-vegetated urban land covers. Thus, whilst the areas of the individual land covers are intuitively sensible (and simple) measures of agricultural and urban cover respectively, their areas do not capture ecologically relevant information about variation in the composition of the uncultivated and non-urban land cover matrices within which the species actually reside. The results illustrate the advantages of using multivariate data reduction techniques (such as the Principle Components Analysis applied here) to describe spatial gradients in the extent of agricultural and urban influence. Relatively few landscape scale studies have focused on insects and the present study illustrates a) the potential for using Orthoptera to explore issues of biodiversity in the landscape and to monitor impacts of land use via analysis of large-scale spatial patterns from national species distribution atlases combined with remotely sensed land cover, and b) the importance of selecting appropriate measures of land use which incorporate information on the complex mix of land cover types utilised by the species under investigation.     

Selecting independent measures to quantify Melbourne's urban–rural gradient

As cities and towns increase in population and size around the world, there is a growing interest in the impact of urbanisation on humans and the environment. The use of urban–rural gradients has proven to be a useful tool for studying changes in ecological patterns and processes across urbanising landscapes. Currently, there are a wide range of measures being used to represent changes in human demographic patterns, physical structures and landscape composition and structure along urban–rural gradients. The aim of this paper was to identify a suite of measures that can be used to define an urban–rural gradient in Melbourne, Australia. Using principal components analysis, we assessed 17 commonly used measures of urbanisation that included demographic variables, physical variables and landscape metrics. Four measures captured most of the variability in the patterns of urbanisation: (1) Index_combined; (2) the ratio of people per unit urban land cover; (3) landscape shape index; (4) dominant land-cover. We used these four measures to quantify Melbourne's urban–rural gradient and then explored their use in representing urbanisation as an environmental space rather than a geographic space. This study provides an example of how to objectively select a subset of measures to quantify urbanisation, and illustrates a novel way of combining the measures to obtain a richer understanding of ecological responses to urbanisation.     

Selecting independent measures to quantify Melbourne's urban–rural gradient

As cities and towns increase in population and size around the world, there is a growing interest in the impact of urbanisation on humans and the environment. The use of urban–rural gradients has proven to be a useful tool for studying changes in ecological patterns and processes across urbanising landscapes. Currently, there are a wide range of measures being used to represent changes in human demographic patterns, physical structures and landscape composition and structure along urban–rural gradients. The aim of this paper was to identify a suite of measures that can be used to define an urban–rural gradient in Melbourne, Australia. Using principal components analysis, we assessed 17 commonly used measures of urbanisation that included demographic variables, physical variables and landscape metrics. Four measures captured most of the variability in the patterns of urbanisation: (1) Index_combined; (2) the ratio of people per unit urban land cover; (3) landscape shape index; (4) dominant land-cover. We used these four measures to quantify Melbourne's urban–rural gradient and then explored their use in representing urbanisation as an environmental space rather than a geographic space. This study provides an example of how to objectively select a subset of measures to quantify urbanisation, and illustrates a novel way of combining the measures to obtain a richer understanding of ecological responses to urbanisation.     

Towards a new rural landscape: consequences of non-agricultural re-use of redundant farm buildings in Friesland

The man-made rural landscape is to a very high degree basically a landscape of farms and farming. Farm buildings play an important role in the image of the rural landscape. Over the last 40–50 years, the number of farmers and farms has decreased all over Europe. At present more than half of all the farm buildings in The Netherlands have no longer a function for agriculture. These buildings are used now for either residential purposes or a combination of residence and some kind of non-agricultural economic activity. A change of function usually leads to a change of the interior and exterior of the building. Data and insights from an extensive study of that phenomenon in the province of Friesland in the north of The Netherlands show what happen to the farm buildings after conversion. How do public authorities in The Netherlands look at this phenomenon that changes rural areas? However, the most important actor in this process of change is the owner/resident of such a place. What are their motives for keeping up or dramatically changing the traditional farm buildings? After the functional change, many of these buildings are more or less fossilised in their original form, some are turned into villas which hardly remind us of their agricultural past. Is the re-use a form of urbanisation or is it part of a process of rural revitalisation? Does the reshaping of these structures lead to a loss of the rural heritage? This article looks into the architectural, economical, social and landscape effects of changes due to re-use. The general outcomes of that are used to discuss the future of rural areas.     

Globalization,regional development,and mega-city expansion in Latin America: Analyzing Mexico City’s peri-urban hinterland

This paper examines the transformation of urban space in the peri-urban areas of Latin American mega-cities, further exacerbating the multi-jurisdictional political divisions that cover a single urban entity. This is against the backcloth of a sharp decline in metropolitan growth rates, absolute population loss in the city center, and an alleged “polarization reversal” of national urban patterns. It argues that previous approaches have failed to recognize that globally and nationally-derived economic development processes are often vested in these meta-urban peripheries. Using Mexico City as an example, the authors propose a new generic methodology that will allow for a broader definition and analysis of mega-city and large metropolitan development. Data are presented within this new framework that help to unpack the demographic, economic and land-use changes that are taking place in Mexico City’s broader urban area. Much of the contemporary vibrancy and dynamics of Mexico City’s metropolitan development are occurring in “hot-spots” in the extended periphery, which, to date, have rarely been considered an integral part of the mega-city. Yet these areas are also some of the principal loci of contemporary globalization processes.     

The Effect of Urban Containment and Mandatory Housing Elements on Racial Segregation in US Metropolitan Areas, 1990–2000

Abstract: Urban containment and state‐imposed mandatory housing elements in comprehensive land use plans attempt to reshape development patterns. Urban containment programs reign in the outward expansion of urban areas by restricting development of rural land outside urban containment boundaries and focusing the regional demand for urban development areas within them. This article assesses the effect of urban containment and mandatory housing elements on the percentage change in racial segregation change among US metropolitan areas during the 1990s. Ordinary least squares regression analysis suggests that while metropolitan areas with strong urban containment efforts saw a higher percentage decline in Anglo/African American residential segregation during the 1990s than metropolitan areas without such policies in place, urban containment had no statistically significant effect on segregation between Anglos and other races. Mandatory housing elements made no difference in racial segregation change between Anglos and any other race. Policy implications are posed.     

Understanding cultural landscape transformation: a re-photographic survey in Chitral, eastern Hindukush, Pakistan

Studies of contemporary land-cover change require an integrated approach because changes in cover and environmental conditions are primarily caused by land uses, which, in turn are governed by human driving forces in a specific socio-economic and cultural context. Therefore, a research perspective which bridges the gap between the more specialized approaches of natural and social sciences is required. The present study, investigates cultural landscape transformation in the high mountain oases of Chitral, lying in the eastern Hindukush. Comparisons of historical photographs and replicates serve to demonstrate change and persistence of cultural landscape structures. The focus is on the irrigated fields of individual villages and shortened in time scale to the last 30 years. Due to the general population growth, the development of the cultural landscape is characterized by recent village enlargements and corresponding extensions of cultivated areas while the individual field sizes decrease. Intensified irrigation of the cultivated terraces has led to a significant increase in hygrophilous trees and thickets along the water channels. The regional center of Chitral Town is characterized by a higher building density and expansion of urban structures. The results show that repeat photography can serve as a basis for monitoring contemporary landscape transformation.     

日本农村分散集落中小城市的出现及其特征

日本古代的制度集村经中世的土地分裂形成分散的农业集落,是近现代工业化、城市化的基础。由于人多地少和农村工业的发展,在人口向东京等三大城市圈集中的同时,农村就地城市化仍然存在。由于铁路等基础设施的建设,农村的可达性增强、地方经济逐渐全球化,并同时进行地方行政制度改革与土地资源整合。政策引导下的国家投入与地方建设使农村在分散集落中出现了大量的人口聚居区,即相互联系的小规模的开放性的多元分散城市。本文用大量的日本资料与数据,以茨城县为例分析日本农村地域多元分散城市的形成与分布、社会经济特征、集落空间结构,并对有相似历史和人多地少国情的中国的城市化与农村建设提出建议。     

Local and landscape scale variables impact parasitoid assemblages across an urbanization gradient

Urbanization is a major driver of land cover change worldwide, yet little is known about how urbanization affects beneficial arthropod communities. This study examined how local and landscape scale variables associated with urbanization influenced parasitic Hymenoptera abundance and diversity in residential and commercial properties along a rural to urban landscape gradient in Wisconsin. At a landscape scale, 300 m surrounding sites, land cover percentages were calculated for five cover classes: impervious cover, forest, grassland, agriculture, and urban green space. In addition, habitat diversity (Simpson's index) was calculated for the landscape surrounding study sites. At a local scale (within the boundaries of an individual property), flower diversity, flower area, tree density, and hardscape were measured and related to parasitoid abundance and diversity. During 2006 and 2007, parasitoids were sampled twice a month June-August using yellow sticky cards. Parasitoid abundance was a positive function of flower diversity, a local scale variable. The positive relationship between parasitoid abundance and flower diversity only occurred in areas containing high to moderate levels of urban development, suggesting parasitoids locally benefited from the increased availability of floral resources in urban but not rural sites. Parasitoid diversity decreased as impervious cover increased in the surrounding landscape. Parasitoid diversity decreased by approximately 10% in highly urbanized sites relative to rural sites, a pattern driven by several parasitoid families not detected in urban sites. These results suggest conservation strategies that focus on landscape variables at multiple scales can play an integral role in preserving beneficial arthropods across urban landscapes.     

Suburbanisation of important aquifers in England and Wales: estimating its current extent

The UK rate of conversion of rural into suburban land cover will increase as the UK population is projected to rise to 70 million by 2056, household size continues to decline and previously developed land becomes scarcer and less attractive. The resultant change in landuse will significantly impact underlying groundwater resources. Geographical information system (GIS) analysis is used to estimate the current extent of suburbanised land cover overlying locally and nationally important aquifers in England and Wales. The effect on groundwater catchments will be marked in southern, central and eastern England, where high groundwater dependence and intense pressure for new housing will inevitably lead to a rise in suburban land cover on periurban catchments that are currently rural land. Water resource planning implications would be better understood with more catchment-scale research. Meanwhile, areas of aquifer most likely to urbanise by 2050 and public supplies most vulnerable to the consequent changes need identifying.     

Back to Von Thunen: a Southern European perspective on mono-centric urban growth,economic structure and non-urban land decline*

This study assesses trends (1960–2010) in forest cover over a Mediterranean metropolitan region (Attica, Greece) with the aim to investigate the role of local contexts promoting changes in the use of land. Forest cover decreased in a spatially heterogeneous manner over the study period determining a land-use structure coherent with the Von Thunen mono-centric model. We used a multivariate exploratory analysis of 26 contextual variables to identify changes in the urban spatial structure at the local scale. The shift from a land-use structure based on urban–rural and cropland-forest polarizations in the early 1960s to a pattern based on the polarization in medium-density, mixed urban/agricultural areas and low-density, sparse forest land has been observed in the last 50 years. Urban expansion into rural land and the establishment of protected areas in economically marginal and remote districts has been identified as relevant drivers of landscape transformation in the area. Our study demonstrates that land-use changes driven by expansion of dispersed settlements may consolidate mono-centric urban structures. A concentric land-use distribution around the central city is compatible with urban sprawl and may be indirectly supported by ‘green belt’ regional planning and environmental policies protecting high-quality natural land.     

Verifying the Multi‐Dimensional Nature of Metropolitan Land Use: Advancing the Understanding and Measurement of Sprawl

Abstract: Twelve conceptually distinct dimensions of land use patterns are operationalized for 50 large US metropolitan areas using a battery of indices. Common patterns of variation in these indices across metropolitan areas are discerned using correlation and factor analyses. We find that: (1) seven principal components best summarize the dimensions of housing and employment land uses, (2) metro areas often exhibit both high and low levels of sprawl‐like patterns across the seven components, and (3) housing and employment aspects of sprawl‐like patterns differ in nature. Thus, land use patterns prove multi‐dimensional in both theory and practice. Exploratory analyses indicate: (1) little regional variation in land use patterns, (2) metro areas with larger populations are more dense/continuous with greater housing centrality and concentration of employment in the core, (3) older areas have higher degrees of housing concentration and employment in the core, (4) constrained areas evince greater density/continuity, and (5) inter‐metropolitan variations in several dimensions of land use patterns are not well explained by population, age, growth patterns, or topographical constraints on development. Results imply that policymakers must carefully unravel which land use dimension is causing undesirable outcomes, and then devise precise policy instruments to change only this dimension.     

How Accessibility Shapes Land Use

An empirical examination of the residential development patterns illustrates that accessibility and the availability of vacant developable land can be used as the basis of a residential land use model. The author presents an operational definition and suggests a method for determining accessibility patterns within metropolitan areas. This is a process of distributing forecasted metropolitan population to small areas within the metropolitan region. Although the model presented is not yet sufficiently well refined for estimating purposes, the concept and the approach may be potentially useful tools for metropolitan planning purposes.     

Thermal comfort implications of urbanization in a warm-humid city: the Colombo Metropolitan Region (CMR), Sri Lanka

In this paper we analyze the historic trends in thermal comfort (measured in terms of Temperature–Humidity Index [THI] and Relative Strain Index [RSI]) in the Sri Lankan primate city of Colombo and correlate them with land cover changes in the region. Land cover is calculated form time-series aerial photographs in terms of “hard” cover (buildings, paved areas and roads) and “soft” cover (trees, green areas and waterbodies). The period selected for analysis includes pre-rapid (up to 1977) and rapid urban phases (1978 onwards) in the city. Contemporary Sri Lanka's urbanization is peculiar in that mid to late 20th century urban rates (approx. 22% of the population) had remained virtually unchanged till the economy was liberalized in 1977, but have recently intensified (currently at about 35%). This offers a unique window of opportunity to look at the thermal comfort transition consequent to urbanization. Since many tropical cities are at a similar stage of demographic transition, lessons from Colombo may generally be applicable to other tropical developing cities as well.

An increasing trend in thermal discomfort—particularly at night—is seen especially at the suburban station and it correlates well with hard land cover changes. The study also brings out the relative importance of land cover in city center vs. rural areas (e.g. hard cover has more effect on thermal discomfort in city center than in rural areas). Based on these findings, we postulate an outline for a climate-sensitive urban design policy for tropical cities.     

Satellite based land use and landscape complexity indices as predictors for regional plant species diversity

It is known that habitats composed of spatially heterogeneous abiotic conditions provide a great diversity of potentially suitable niches for plant species. The scientific premises of landscape ecology suggest that, at a higher spatial level, also the composition and structure of the landscape mosaic, influences biotic processes and hence species richness. In this exploratory study we investigated if plant species diversity could be correlated with landscape structure and complexity indices which were based on Landsat Thematic Mapper satellite imagery. Plant species data were derived from the 4 km×4 km resolution Flora Database of Flanders (i.e. northern Belgium). Plant species number within the 4 km×4 km grid cells was positively correlated with most of the landscape diversity indices whereas landscape fragmentation indices only affected the group of the threatened species. We found a gradient of increasing species richness beginning from the rural areas of Flanders over the suburban towards the urban areas. This gradient was mostly due to the higher number of alien plant species, warmth indicators and threatened species in urbanised areas. We conclude that, at least in the studied region, the effects of landscape changes on plant species diversity can be monitored and predicted on a large scale and over long periods of time using land cover data. Bottleneck in this kind of analyses remains the reliability of the land cover data and the availability and reliability of the biological data.