Durability of concrete made with EAF slag as aggregate

Electric arc furnace (EAF) slag, a by-product of steelmaking recovered after the oxidizing process, is useful when employed as aggregate in hydraulic concrete and bituminous mixtures. Concrete made with EAF oxidizing slag as an aggregate shows good physical and mechanical properties and further study of its durability will ensure greater reliability in its usage. This paper details a systematic study of slag concrete behaviour under severe test conditions. The tests were designed to evaluate the internal expansivity of the slag, its chemical reactivity with some components of the cement and its resistance to environmental agents, ice and moisture. The results indicate that the durability of slag concrete is acceptable, though slightly lower than that of conventional concrete. When the mix proportions are adequate, both the mechanical strength and the durability of slag concrete are satisfactory, although in less care mixes durability is likely to be impaired.Finally, leaching tests were performed to determine the environmental impact of the concrete, which, in comparison to results obtained directly from the slag, confirmed an important cloistering effect of the cementitious matrix on contaminant elements.     

Studies on the corrosion resistance of reinforced steel in concrete with ground granulated blast-furnace slag--An overview

The partial replacement of clinker, the main constituent of ordinary Portland cement by pozzolanic or latent hydraulic industrial by-products such as ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS), effectively lowers the cost of cement by saving energy in the production process. It also reduces CO2 emissions from the cement plant and offers a low priced solution to the environmental problem of depositing industrial wastes. The utilization of GGBFS as partial replacement of Portland cement takes advantage of economic, technical and environmental benefits of this material. Recently offshore, coastal and marine concrete structures were constructed using GGBFS concrete because high volume of GGBFS can contribute to the reduction of chloride ingress. In this paper, the influence of using GGBFS in reinforced concrete structures from the durability aspects such as chloride ingress and corrosion resistance, long term durability, microstructure and porosity of GGBFS concrete has been reviewed and discussed.     

Mechanical and durability characteristics of concrete containing EAF slag as aggregate

The present study aims to investigate the opportunity to largely substitute natural aggregates of traditional concrete with Black/Oxidizing Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) slag. Compressive and tensile strength, elastic modulus and durability characteristics (accelerated aging, freezing and thawing, wetting and drying) of concrete containing EAF slag as aggregate according to Fuller’s ideal grading curve were experimentally investigated. This study aims to improve the scarce database of mechanical and durability tests on this type of concrete and give some insights to improve durability properties of concrete made with EAF slag, not only using modern agents and additives, but also working on the actual grading curve of aggregates used, closely connected to the overall durability for any kind of concrete. Concrete made with EAF slag as aggregate showed good strength characteristics since, in normal environmental conditions, strength properties of the conglomerate containing EAF slag are totally comparable (or even better) than those observed for traditional concrete. Conversely, the typical chemical and physical properties of EAF slag, such as the high content in calcium and magnesium oxides inclined to hydration, may be a limit for the durability of the resulting concrete: on one hand the durability can be strongly improved even in critical freezing/thawing environmental conditions by a small amount of air-entraining agent, on the other hand, this conglomerate still remains rather vulnerable to repeated cycles of wetting and drying.     

Long term properties under marine exposure of steel fibre reinforced concrete containing pfa

The paper presents results on the long-term mechanical properties and durability under marine exposure of a steel fibre reinforced concrete (SFRC) mix containing pulverized fuel ash (PFA) which was developed for marine applications. The mix was of proportions by weight of PFA:OPC:fine aggregate:coarse aggregate of 0.26:0.74:1.51:0.84 with a water/(OPC+PFA) ratio of 0.4. The resulting cement content of the mix was 435 kg m⁻³. Theconcrete was reinforced with low-carbon steel, corrosion-resistant (galvanized) or melt-extract (stainless) steel fibres. Prism specimens were cured in the tidal zone at Aberdeen beach, under wet-dry cycles of sea-water spray in the laboratory, in a water-tank in the laboratory and in the laboratory air. The specimens were cured for up to 1200 marine cycles of exposure (640 days) and were tested at regular intervals of age. The paper presents results on long-term compressive strength, flexural strength and energy absorption capacity as measured from the load-deflection curves. The state of corrosion of fibres is also described. The results indicate that fibres embedded within concrete remain free from corrosion under marine exposure. In the case of fibres exposed at the concrete surface during casting, extensive corrosion occurs in low-carbon steel fibres, isolated rust spots appear in corrosion-resistant fibres and no corrosion is evident in melt-extract fibres. This corrosion, however, remains a surface phenomenon and does not penetrate the concrete. The long-term mechanical properties indicate no deterioration due to possible corrosion. In general the compressive strength of concrete increases significantly with fibre reinforcement.Increases in flexural strength and post-cracking ductility due to fibre reinforcement are of the order normally expected of SFRC.     

Utilisation of steel slag as an aggregate in concrete

This paper aims to investigate the possibility of utilizing steel slags produced in Croatian plants as a concrete aggregate. Aggregate properties were determined on coarse slag fractions (4–8, 8–16 mm) according to the relevant European Standards. Considering the obtained results, slags were specified in accordance with the classes as given in the main European standard for aggregates, whereupon these classes were compared to the Croatian regulation requirements. The obtained results proved that coarse slag fractions can be suitable for concrete application. Therefore, concrete mixtures were prepared with coarse slag fractions whose hardened state properties (compressive and flexural strength, static modulus of elasticity, volume changes and corrosion susceptibility) were then compared with the properties of reference concrete made of commonly used natural aggregate materials, namely dolomite. According to the obtained test results it can be concluded that the observed slags can be a good substitute for natural aggregate materials.     

Structure formation of slag ash concrete on the basis of high-calcium fly ash and silica fume

Cementless slag ash concrete may be manufactured using high-calcium fly ash and silica fume as replacements for a binder and a microfiller, and incorporating slag sand from thermal power plants (TPP) as an aggregate. This concrete consists of waste products from TPP (fly ash and slag) and ferro-alloy plants (silica fume) and contains neither natural nor artificial aggregates for lightweight and heavy concretes. Silica fume (10–20% by weight of ash) and hot water together with subsequent heat treatment of concrete products or of castin situ structures binds the excess free calcium oxide present in the ash, and thus prevents deterioration of the concrete. The processes of concrete structure formation were investigated after 24 hours, 28 days, 3 and 6 months and the physico-mechanical, deformation and special properties (frost resistance, heat conductivity, protection of reinforcement from corrosion) were studied. This concrete conforms to the Russian Federation GOST requirement for use in single, two-storey buildings. The cost of the concrete is reduced by a factor of 3 compared with that of ordinary concrete.     

Durability of lightweight OPS concrete under different curing conditions

The use of waste materials and by products from different industries for building construction has been gaining increased attention due to the rapid depletion of natural resources. It has been found that oil palm shell (OPS), which is a waste from the agricultural sector, can be used as coarse aggregate for the manufacture of structural lightweight concrete. However, for OPS concrete to be used in practical applications, its durability needs to be investigated. Therefore, this paper presents the durability performance of OPS concrete under four curing regimes. The durability properties investigated include the volume of permeable voids (VPVs), sorptivity, water permeability, chloride diffusion coefficient and time to corrosion initiation from the 90-day salt ponding test, and Rapid Chloride Penetrability Test (RCPT). Results showed that the durability properties of OPS concrete were comparable to that of other conventional lightweight concretes and proper curing is essential for OPS concrete to achieve better durability especially at the later ages.     

饱和钢纤维再生混凝土氯离子扩散特性研究

利用废弃骨料制作再生混凝土是建筑固废弃物的再生资源利用途径之一,其在氯盐侵蚀环境条件下的耐久性规律与普通混凝土不同。本文以模拟海洋侵蚀环境,通过改变水灰比及NaCl溶液浓度,分析各因素对钢纤维再生混凝土氯离子扩散行为的影响规律。结果表明:浸泡液浓度越大,进入混凝土内部的氯离子越多,随着深度的增加氯离子含量逐渐减少;较低的水灰比与适量钢纤维的掺入均可以有效降低氯离子扩散系数,提升钢纤维再生混凝土的抗氯盐侵蚀能力;氯离子扩散系数随着NaCl溶液浓度的增加而增大。     

Engineering performance of a new siloxane-based corrosion inhibitor

This paper presents an evaluation of a new non-toxic corrosion inhibitor on selected engineering properties of concrete mixes with different cementitious materials following a corrosion and durability study on concrete samples. Corrosion inhibitors consist of powders or solutions which are added to concrete when mixed to prevent or delay corrosion of steel by their reaction with ferrous ions to form a stable and passive ferric oxide film on the steel surface. The new inhibitor functions slightly differently and its corrosion inhibition effect is due to the formation of a siloxane coating on the steel surface. Therefore, the performance of the new inhibitor in concrete mixes manufactured with CEM I, PFA and GGBS cements was compared against a well known and established corrosion inhibitor on the market, namely calcium nitrite in terms of their effect on workability (measured in terms of slump), compressive strength, freeze–thaw durability and macro-cell corrosion. The results from this experimental programme have demonstrated that the new inhibitor is effective in reducing or slowing down corrosion. In addition, it was found that CEM I concrete containing the new inhibitor was less penetrable to chlorides than that without. A similar set of results was obtained for the freeze–thaw resistance, but the compressive strength was found to decrease with the addition of the new inhibitor. In the case of concretes containing PFA and GGBS, the new inhibitor was found to be less effective. Further, long-term investigations are recommended to assess the effectiveness over time.     

Structure and properties of aerated concrete: a review

Aerated concrete is relatively homogeneous when compared to normal concrete, as it does not contain coarse aggregate phase, yet shows vast variation in its properties. The properties of aerated concrete depend on its microstructure (void–paste system) and composition, which are influenced by the type of binder used, methods of pore-formation and curing. Although aerated concrete was initially envisaged as a good insulation material, there has been renewed interest in its structural characteristics in view of its lighter weight, savings in material and potential for large scale utilisation of wastes like pulverised fuel ash. The focus of this paper is to classify the investigations on the properties of aerated concrete in terms of physical (microstructure, density), chemical, mechanical (compressive and tensile strengths, modulus of elasticity, drying shrinkage) and functional (thermal insulation, moisture transport, durability, fire resistance and acoustic insulation) characteristics.     

珊瑚骨料混凝土性能及微结构的研究进展

海洋工程混凝土是发展海洋经济的重要基础支撑,远洋岛礁工程"就地取材",即采用珊瑚等物料进行建设,是海洋土木工程研究的必然追求。珊瑚骨料与普通砂石骨料、轻集料在组成、结构及性能等方面存在明显差异。本文阐述了珊瑚骨料特性对混凝土工作性能、力学性能、体积稳定性能、耐久性能及微结构的影响,指出了珊瑚骨料混凝土存在强度不足、脆性大和抗蚀差等问题,并针对适合海洋环境的高强度、高韧性和高耐久的珊瑚骨料混凝土的研究开发进行了展望。     

珊瑚骨料混凝土性能及微结构的研究进展

海洋工程混凝土是发展海洋经济的重要基础支撑,远洋岛礁工程"就地取材",即采用珊瑚等物料进行建设,是海洋土木工程研究的必然追求.珊瑚骨料与普通砂石骨料、轻集料在组成、结构及性能等方面存在明显差异.本文阐述了珊瑚骨料特性对混凝土工作性能、力学性能、体积稳定性能、耐久性能及微结构的影响,指出了珊瑚骨料混凝土存在强度不足、脆性大和抗蚀差等问题,并针对适合海洋环境的高强度、高韧性和高耐久的珊瑚骨料混凝土的研究开发进行了展望.     

Durability of mortar and concretes containing slag with low hydraulic activity

Granulated blast furnace slag has been widely used as a partial substitute for Portland cement in many applications because of advantages which include cost reduction, reduction in heat evolution and improvement of durability properties. However, the effectiveness of slag depends on its hydraulic reactivity. In this paper, the results of an experimental study on the effect of slag with low hydraulicity on the mechanical and durability properties of concrete and the performance of mortar under sulfate attack are discussed. Special attention is given to gas permeability and water absorption of slag concrete. The durability of slag concrete is improved at long term at low Water/Binder ratio. Sulfate resistance of mortar is improved by slag replacement up to 30%.     

Durability performance of a range of marine concretes and the applicability of the South African Service Life Prediction Model

The paper describes a study that examined and compared the potential durability performance of various geographically distinct South African marine concrete mix types. Mix proportions were designed at two water/binder ratios (0.40 and 0.55) for different material combinations of binder and aggregate types. Sampling was done at 28, 91 and 182?days. Durability performance was inferred from durability index (DI) tests that measure the resistance of concrete to ion, gas and fluid penetration. Comparison was made on the basis of regional concrete type, w/b ratio and mix constituents (binder and aggregate type). All the concrete mixes were further compared to plain CEM I control concrete mixes at each w/b ratio. Results indicate that low w/b ratio and blended binder concrete mixes have low penetrability characteristics. Aggregate type was seen not to have an appreciable influence on the transport properties of concrete. Across the range of geographically different mixes, it was found that with a given concrete grade and binder type, marine concrete mixes are practically comparable. This permits the existing Service Life Prediction Model to be more confidently applied for all marine zones in South Africa with possible application in other geographic regions following further research.     

Effects of a combined admixture of slag powder and thermally treated flue gas desulphurization (FGD) gypsum on the compressive strength and durability of concrete

In this paper, the effects of a combined admixture of slag powder and thermally treated flue gas desulphurization (FGD) gypsum on the compressive strength and durability of concrete were explored. The gypsum was baked at a proper temperature of 200°C for 60 min; it was then mixed with slag powder to form the type-G slag powder in which SO₃ content was controlled at the optimum ratio of 3.5%. Concretes containing the type-G slag powder or ordinary slag powder were further contrasted on the compressive strength and durability. The results showed that the compressive strength, resistance to chloride, and resistance to gas permeability of concrete with the type-G slag powder were higher than that with ordinary slag powder. Additionally, there were no negative effects on concrete against sulfate attack. The combination of the two byproducts, slag powder and thermally treated FGD gypsum, provided synergistic benefits above that of ordinary slag powder alone.     

A study on durability properties of high-performance concretes incorporating high replacement levels of slag

This paper presents an experimental study of combined effects of curing method and high replacement levels of blast furnace slag on the mechanical and durability properties of high performance concrete. Two different curing methods were simulated as follows: wet cured (in water) and air cured (at 20°C and 65% RH). The concretes with slag were produced by partial substitution of cement with slag at varying amounts of 50–80%. The water to cementitious material ratio was maintained at 0.40 for all mixes. Properties that include compressive and splitting tensile strengths, water absorption by total immersion and by capillary rise, chloride penetration, and resistance of concrete against damage due to corrosion of the embedded reinforcement were measured at different ages up to 90 days. It was found that the incorporation of slag at 50% and above-replacement levels caused a reduction in strength, especially for the early age of air cured specimens. However, the strength increases with the presence of slag up to 60% replacement for the 90 day wet cured specimens. Test results also indicated that curing condition and replacement level had significant effects on the durability characteristics; in particular the most prominent effects were observed on slag blended cement concrete, which performed extremely well when the amount of slag used in the mixture increased up to 80%.     

再生混凝土耐久性能研究进展

再生混凝土是目前建筑垃圾处理技术研究及推广的主要方向,并作为一种新型建筑材料,改变了国家以往对建筑垃圾填埋的处理方式,节约了土地资源,减少山砂、石开采,符合国家绿色、低碳、可持续发展战略。再生骨料孔隙率高于天然骨料,能显著影响混凝土的耐久性,再生混凝土自问世以来其耐久性能便备受关注。主要综述了再生混凝土抗碳化性能、抗冻性能、抗氯离子渗透性能及介质侵蚀等耐久性的研究现状,并对现已建立的耐久性相关模型进行了简单介绍。     

Properties of recycled ceramic aggregate concretes: Water resistance

Water permeability is a durability indicator, for it quantifies concrete resistance to penetration by external agents, due to that water is one of the main carriers of aggressive substances. The present study explores whether substituting 20% and 25% recycled sanitary ware for gravel in coarse aggregate affects structural recycled concrete resistance to water. The findings reveal that the slightly higher porosity in the recycled concrete does not translate into greater permeability. These new recycled concretes, which prove to be as durable as the conventional material, will therefore perform well throughout their design service life.     

骨料种类与品质对透水混凝土性能影响的研究进展

骨料作为支撑透水材料空间骨架结构的原料,其形状、粒径范围及分布、种类与品质都对材料强度、透水性及耐久性产生重要的影响。文章从透水混凝土的骨料种类与品质要求为切入点,介绍了应用于透水混凝土中的天然骨料,建筑垃圾、工业固废、人造骨料及生活垃圾底渣等再生骨料与砂基细骨料的基本物理化学特性,重点综述了各类骨料对透水混凝土强度、透水性、耐久性及水质净化等性能影响的研究进展,并进行了简要分析与总结。最后,提出了透水混凝土可以通过对骨料的质量控制来提升其透水时效性与耐久性,指出未来需扩大透水混凝土行业协同处置废弃物的范围与能力。     

Concrete durability presented by acceptable chloride level and chloride diffusion coefficient in concrete: 10-year results in marine site

Generally, concrete with high resistance to the marine environment should have high compressive strength, a low chloride diffusion coefficient (D _C), and a high acceptable chloride level (Ac). Considering all parameters simultaneously, this study evaluated the degree of fly ash concrete durability based on 10-year results in a marine site. Based on the concrete durability (Ac/D _C, as compared to cement concrete with a W/B ratio of 0.45) and compressive strength, the degree of concrete durability proposed in this study indicates that fly ash concretes with a W/B ratio of 0.45 and 15–35 wt % fly ash replacement exhibit high-quality performance in a marine site.