Influence of friction stir welding residual stresses on the compressive strength of aluminium alloy plates

The mechanical behaviour of welded structures can be significantly affected by the effects of the employed joining process. The main goal of this work is to assess the influence of the longitudinal residual stresses on the overall compressive performance of aluminium friction stir welded plates. Longitudinal residual stress distribution was measured by means of the contour method and introduced as initial condition into a finite element model of the compressed assembly. Also, the sensitivity of the plates to the magnitude of the initial geometrical imperfections was analysed. It can be inferred that both factors influence the plate's mechanical behaviour.     

Residual stresses in cold-rolled stainless steel hollow sections

Stainless steel exhibits a pronounced response to cold-work and heat input. As a result, the behaviour of structural stainless steel sections, as influenced by strength, ductility and residual stress presence, is sensitive to the precise means by which the sections are produced. This paper explores the presence and influence of residual stresses in cold-rolled stainless steel box sections using experimental and numerical techniques. In previous studies, residual stress magnitudes have been inferred from surface strain measurements and an assumed through-thickness stress distribution. In the present study, through-thickness residual stresses in cold-rolled stainless steel box sections have been measured directly by means of X-ray diffraction and their effect on structural behaviour has been carefully assessed through detailed non-linear numerical modelling. Geometric imperfections, flat and corner material properties and the average compressive response of stainless steel box sections were also examined experimentally and the results have been fully reported. From the X-ray diffraction measurements, it was concluded that the influence of through-thickness (bending) residual stresses in cold-rolled stainless steel box sections could be effectively represented by a rectangular stress block distribution. The developed ABAQUS numerical models included features such as non-linear material stress-strain characteristics, initial geometric imperfections, residual stresses (membrane and bending) and enhanced strength corner properties. The residual stresses, together with the corresponding plastic strains, were included in the FE models by means of the SIGINI and HARDINI Fortran subroutines. Of the two residual stress components, the bending residual stresses were found to be larger in magnitude and of greater (often positive) influence on the structural behaviour of thin-walled cold-formed stainless steel sections.     

Proposed residual stress model for roller bent steel wide flange sections

The manufacturing process of structural wide flange steel sections introduces residual stresses in the material. These stresses due to hot-rolling or welding influence the inelastic buckling response of structural steel members and need to be taken into account in the design. Based on experimental data standardized residual stress models have been proposed for inclusion in inelastic buckling analyses. By incorporating these residual stress models their effect on the resistance of beams and columns can be obtained. Residual stress models for roller bent steel sections are currently not available. Roller bent wide flange sections are manufactured by curving straight members at ambient temperature. This manufacturing technique, which is also known as roller bending, stresses the material beyond its yield stress, thereby overriding the initial residual stresses prior to bending and generating an entirely new pattern. This paper proposes a residual stress model for roller bent wide flange sections, based on earlier conducted numerical investigations which were validated by experimental research performed at Eindhoven University of Technology. The proposed residual stress model can serve as an initial state of a roller bent steel section in fully non-linear finite element analyses to accurately predict its influence on the inelastic buckling response.     

Residual stress analysis of structural stainless steel sections

The magnitude and distribution of residual stresses in structural carbon steel sections have been thoroughly investigated. However, few residual stress measurements have been made on structural stainless steel sections. Stainless steel has differing material stress-strain characteristics and thermal properties to carbon steel, both of which influence the formation of residual stresses. This suggests that established carbon steel residual stress models may not be appropriate for stainless steel. With increased use of stainless steel in load bearing applications, it is important to establish the residual stresses that exist within structural members. An experimental program to quantify the residual stresses in stainless steel sections from three different production routes has therefore been carried out. Comprehensive residual stress distributions have been obtained for three hot rolled angles, eight press braked angles and seven cold rolled box sections, with a total of over 800 readings taken. This paper presents the experimental techniques implemented and the residual stress distributions obtained as well as discussing the assumptions commonly made regarding through thickness residual stress variations. In the hot rolled and press braked sections, residual stresses were typically found to be below 20% of the material 0.2% proof stress, though for the cold rolled box sections, whilst membrane residual stresses were relatively low, bending residual stresses were found to be between 40% and 70% of the material 0.2% proof stress.     

Ductility,strength and stability of concrete-filled fabricated steel box columns for tall buildings

This paper is concerned with the ductility, strength and stability behaviour of concrete filled steel box columns. A cross-sectional analysis procedure which considers the nonlinear material properties of steel and concrete has been developed. The steel behaviour includes the presence of residual strains and stresses. A parametric study is undertaken to monitor the influence of residual stresses, concrete strength and steel strength on the thrust–moment–curvature response. A parameter known as the ductility ratio is calculated and this gives an indication of the ability of a structural member to deform. From the results of the thrust–moment–curvature response, strength interaction diagrams are also developed. Slender column behaviour for these structural members is described and methods by which to determine the strength are discussed. A design example is presented which shows the use of both the strength interaction diagrams and the slender column buckling procedure developed by other researchers. Further research areas are then outlined and discussed in order to elucidate the behaviour and design of these highly efficient column members in tall buildings. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Finite element simulations of residual stresses in roller bent wide flange sections

Curved structural wide flange steel sections are frequently used in buildings or bridges. These sections are usually curved at ambient temperatures with a roller bending machine. This process alters the residual stress distribution, which may affect the elasto-plastic buckling behavior of arches. This paper presents a numerical modeling technique to estimate residual stresses in curved wide flange sections manufactured by the pyramid roller bending process. The technique incorporates material non-linearity, geometrical non-linearity and contact modeling. Numerically obtained residual stresses are compared to experimental results and good agreement was found for the top flange. Only moderate agreement was observed for the web but very good coherence was realized for the bottom flange. It is concluded that a finite element analysis can be used to estimate residual stresses in roller bent wide flange sections.     

焊接热切高强H型钢的残余应力

构件中所存在的残余应力会大大影响钢结构组件的刚度和疲劳寿命。虽然对于低碳钢的结构部件有较多的研究,但由于在常温和高温下应力-应变关系和材料属性的不同,造成了残余应力分布在高强钢构件中与低碳钢焊接而成的构件中的差异。因此,有必要研究由高强钢焊接而成的结构部件中残余应力的分布。对3个屈服强度460MPa的焊接热切高强型钢柱的残余应力进行研究,对不同横截面大小也进行了分析。使用切片法和钻孔法测量,并对两种方法所获得的残余应力进行比较。所测量的残余应力的大小和分布与碳钢中的一致,然而却有相对更小的残余应力比。最后,根据所测量的值,提出一个简化的由热切H型钢焊接而成的460MPa高强钢构件的残余应力分布。     

Residual stresses in welded flame-cut high strength steel H-sections

The presence of residual stress in members can significantly compromise the stiffness and fatigue life of steel structural components. Researches in this area are well documented for structural members of mild carbon steels. Nevertheless, due to the difference of stress–strain relations and material properties under ambient and high temperatures, the residual stress distribution in a high strength steel member is physically different from those fabricated from mild carbon steel. It is imperative to study the residual stress distribution for structural members fabricated from high strength steel. In this paper, the residual stresses of three welded flame-cut H-section columns with a nominal yield strength of 460 MPa but different cross-section dimensions were investigated. Both sectioning and hole-drilling methods were used in the measurement and the obtained residual stresses were compared between the two methods. The magnitudes and distributions of the measured residual stresses are identical with those of carbon steel, however in relatively smaller residual stress ratios. Finally, based on the measurements, a simplified residual stress distribution for 460 MPa high strength steel members with welded flame-cut H-section is proposed.     

Influence of cold bending on the resistance of wide flange members

Cold rolling is used for bending straight members with hot rolled wide-flange sections to create arches. Extensive studies have shown that the influence of residual stresses due to hot rolling on the resistance of wide-flange steel sections is nonnegligible. On the contrary, the residual stress pattern due to roller bending has been only recently identified. Its effects on the elasto-plastic behavior of curved members have not been studied sufficiently. In this paper, an in-depth study of the influence of such residual stresses is performed. Considering the residual stress pattern due to cold bending, interaction diagrams and buckling curves for cold bent steel arches are developed. The results are quantified and compared with those for hot-rolled and stress free members. This allows designers to appreciate the available margins of safety when using standard interaction equations and buckling curves for cold bent members. Furthermore, the results suggest the necessity for the development of buckling curves for cold bent members including initial imperfections.     

不锈钢构件截面的残余应力分析

对碳钢结构截面的残余应力的大小及分布的研究已经比较成熟,但是对不锈钢截面的残余应力研究却还很少见。不锈钢与碳钢有着不同的材料应力-应变特性和热性能,它们都影响着残余应力的形成。这意味着已确定的碳钢残余应力模型可能并不适合不锈钢。随着不锈钢的应用日益增多,对其残余应力的研究显得尤为重要。     

辊弯曲宽翼缘构件残余应力的有限元模拟

弯曲宽翼缘钢构件常用于建筑和桥梁中,并在室温下通过辊弯机进行弯曲。辊弯过程改变了构件残余应力分布,可能影响拱构件的弹塑性屈曲性能。考虑材料非线性、几何非线性及接触,进行数值模拟,分析辊弯过程中弯曲宽翼缘构件的残余应力。将模拟结果与试验结果进行比较,结果表明:下翼缘吻合很好,上翼缘吻合较好,腹板吻合一般。结果证明有限元分析方法可用于研究辊弯曲宽翼缘构件的残余应力。     

Second-order inelastic analysis of composite framed structures based on the refined plastic hinge method

Composite steel-concrete structures experience non-linear effects which arise from both instability-related geometric non-linearity and from material non-linearity in all of their component members. This paper therefore presents a numerical procedure capable of addressing geometric and material non-linearities at the strength limit state based on the refined plastic hinge method. The refined plastic hinge approach models the elasto-gradual-plastic material non-linearity with strain-hardening under the interaction of bending and axial actions. This produces a benign method for a beam–column composite element under general loading cases. Another main feature of this paper is that, for members containing a point of contraflexure, its location is determined and a node is then located at this position to reproduce the real flexural behaviour and associated material non-linearity of the member. The formulation with the refined plastic hinge approach is efficacious and robust, and so a full frame analysis incorporating geometric and material non-linearity is tractable. Following development of the theory, its application is illustrated with a number of varied examples.     

高温作用后高强Q690钢焊接截面残余应力试验研究

焊接中的不均匀受热和冷却使钢材内部产生残余应力,残余应力会降低钢构件的刚度、稳定承载力和疲劳性能。钢构件在高温下的强度退化、塑性和蠕变变形会引起截面残余应力改变,从而影响其火灾下及火灾后承载力。为此,采用高强Q690钢材制作了6个焊接构件,包括H形、箱形两种截面形式。利用切条法测量其在常温（20℃）下、600℃和800℃高温作用后的截面残余应力,得到不同温度作用后残余应力的大小与分布。结果表明：高温作用后,残余应力有不同程度的释放;经历600℃作用后,箱形与H形截面残余应力幅值均下降至常温下的约35%;经历800℃作用后,箱形与H形截面残余应力幅值均下降至常温下的15%以下。基于试验结果,提出Q690焊接截面残余应力分布模型及残余应力幅值随受火温度变化的折减系数。     

Schweißverzug,Schweißeigenspannungen und Schalenstabilität

Weld distortion, residual stress and stability of shells. Imperfections have an influence on the stability behaviour of cylindrical shells and arise, among others, from the assembling process. This article deals with numerical analyses on the welding distortion and residual stresses in the weld of cylindrical shells with single‐pass circumferential weld and their influence on the stability behaviour under axial load. Cylinders and cylinder segments made of the steel grades S235 and S355 with plate thicknesses of 1 mm to 4 mm and radii of 200 mm to 1600 mm are considered. The developmental process of the weld distortion is explained by means of a cylinder and the qualitative process of radial deformation after welding is shown. Special features for developing residual stresses are explained. The influence of the transient welding process of single‐ply radial welds on the axial limited stress of the cylindrical shell is considered using a parameter study. Regularities for welding distortion with different cylinder slenderness ratios are determined from this parameter study.     

Residual stresses in press-braked stainless steel sections,I: Coiling and uncoiling of sheets

The manufacturing process of cold-formed thin-walled steel members induces cold work which can be characterized by the co-existent residual stresses and equivalent plastic strains and has a significant effect on their structural behaviour and strength. The present paper and the companion paper are concerned with the prediction of residual stresses and co-existent equivalent plastic strains in stainless steel sections formed by the press-braking method. This manufacturing process consists of the following two distinct stages: (i) coiling and uncoiling of the sheets, and (ii) press-braking operations. This paper presents an analytical solution for the residual stresses and co-existent equivalent plastic strains that arise from the first stage. In the analytical solution, the coiling–uncoiling stage is modelled as an inelastic plane strain pure bending problem; the stainless steel sheets are assumed to obey Hill’s anisotropic yield criterion with isotropic hardening to account for the effects of material anisotropy and nonlinear stress–strain behaviour. The accuracy of the solution is demonstrated by comparing its predictions with those obtained from a finite element analysis. The present analytical solution and the corresponding analytical solution for press-braking operations presented in the companion paper form an integrated analytical model for predicting residual stresses and equivalent plastic strains in press-braked stainless steel sections.     

Tangent moduli of hot-rolled I-shaped axial members considering various residual stress distributions

This paper presents an equation for the effective tangent moduli for steel axial members of hot-rolled I-shaped section subjected to various residual stress distributions. Because of the existence of residual stresses, the cross section yields gradually even when the member is subjected to uniform axial stresses. In the elasto-plastic stage, the structural response can be easily traced using rational tangent modulus of the member. In this study, the equations for rational tangent moduli for hot-rolled I-shaped steel members in the elasto-plastic stage were derived based on the general principle of force-equilibrium. For practical purpose, the equations for the tangent modulus were presented for conventional patterns of the residual stress distribution of hot-rolled I-shaped steel members. Through a series of material nonlinear analyses for steel axial members modeled by shell elements, the derived equations were numerically verified, and the presented equations were compared with the CRC tangent modulus equation, the most frequently used equation so far. The comparative study shows that the presented equations are extremely effective for accurately analyzing elasto-plastic behavior of the axially loaded members in a simple manner without using complex shell element models.     

A study on the behavior of eccentrically compressed square concrete-filled steel tube columns

In this study the bending moment-axial force-curvature (M-N-Φ) relation for eccentrically compressed square CFT columns is obtained by basic analysis of mechanics which takes into account the effect of residual stress of steel and non-linearity of concrete and steel. This study presents a simplified analytical method for predicting the ultimate strength of eccentrically compressed square concrete filled steel tube (CFT) columns based on the collapse theory. The proposed method can also be used in the prediction of ultimate strength of axially compressed columns with initial imperfections as they are treated as equivalent slightly eccentrically compressed columns. The results obtained by the proposed method agree well with the experiments.     

焊接铝合金构件残余应力试验研究

迄今为止,我国有关焊接铝合金构件残余应力的研究还不多见.由于铝合金与钢型材的材性等方面有诸多不同,使得焊接对铝合金的影响变得更为复杂.作为焊接影响的一个重要方面,焊接残余应力的分布规律成为迫切需要研究的重要课题.为此,采用切片法对两种方式焊接的铝合金工字型截面构件的残余应力进行了测试.通过对测试数据的分析整理,得出纵向焊接工字型截面构件残余应力的分布情况.为进一步总结焊接铝合金构件残余应力的分布规律及研究残余应力对构件承载力的影响提供了基础.     

Residual stresses in press-braked stainless steel sections,II: Press-braking operations

The manufacturing process of cold-formed thin-walled steel members induces cold work which can be characterized by the co-existent residual stresses and equivalent plastic strains and has a significant effect on their structural behaviour and strength. The present paper and the companion paper are concerned with the prediction of residual stresses and co-existent equivalent plastic strains in stainless steel sections formed by the press-braking method. This manufacturing process consists of the following two distinct stages: (i) coiling and uncoiling of the sheets, and (ii) press-braking operations. This paper first presents an analytical solution for the residual stresses and the co-existent equivalent plastic strains that arise from the second stage while a corresponding analytical solution for the first stage is presented in the companion paper. In both solutions, plane strain pure bending is assumed and the effect of material anisotropy is taken into account. On the basis of these two analytical solutions, an analytical model is presented to predict residual stresses and equivalent plastic strains in press-braked stainless sections. The predictions of the analytical model are shown to be in close agreement with results from a finite element-based method, demonstrating the validity and accuracy of the analytical model. The analytical model provides a much simpler method for the accurate prediction of residual stresses and equivalent plastic strains in different parts of a press-braked stainless steel section than a finite element-based method.     

GBT-based elastic–plastic post-buckling analysis of stainless steel thin-walled members

When compared with carbon steel, stainless steel exhibits a more pronounced non-linearity and no well-defined yield plateau, as well as appealing features such as aesthetics, higher corrosion resistance and lower life cycle cost. Due to its considerably high ductility/strength and cost, stainless steel structural solutions tend to be adopted mostly for slender/light structures, thus rendering the assessment of their structural behaviour rather complex, chiefly because of the high susceptibility to instability phenomena. The first objective of this paper is to present the main concepts and procedures involved in the development of a geometrically and materially non-linear Generalised Beam Theory (GBT) formulation and numerical implementation (code), intended to analyse the behaviour and collapse of thin-walled members made of materials with a highly non-linear stress–strain curve (e.g., stainless steel or aluminium). The second objective is to validate and illustrate the application of the proposed GBT formulation, by comparing its results (equilibrium paths, ultimate loads, deformed configurations, displacement profiles and stress distributions) with those provided by shell finite element analyses of two lean duplex square hollow section (SHS) columns previously investigated, both experimentally and numerically, by Theofanous and Gardner (Eng Struct 2009; 31(12): 3047–3058.). The stainless steel material behaviour is modelled as non-linear isotropic and the GBT analysis includes initial geometrical imperfections, but neglects corner strength enhancements and membrane residual stresses. It is shown that the GBT unique modal nature makes it possible to acquire in-depth knowledge concerning the mechanics of the column behaviour, by providing “structural x-rays” of the (elastic or elastic–plastic) equilibrium configurations: modal participation diagrams showing the quantitative contributions of the global, local, warping shear and transverse extension deformation modes - moreover, this feature makes it possible to exclude, from future similar GBT analyses, those deformation modes found to play a negligible role in the mechanics of the behaviour under scrutiny, thus further reducing the number of degrees of freedom involved in a GBT analysis, i.e., increasing its computational efficiency.