Development of in situ system to monitor the machining process using a piezo load cell

The measurement of cutting force is one of the most frequently used techniques for monitoring machining processes. Its widespread application ranges from tool condition identification, feedback control and cutting system design to process optimization.This paper suggests another system for measuring cutting force in milling processes. Generally, tool dynamometers are taken into account for the most appropriate cutting force measuring tool in the analysis of a cutting mechanism. However, high prices and limited working space make in situ systems difficult for a controllable milling process. Although an alternative suggestion is to use an AC current from a servomotor, it is unsuitable for cutting force monitoring because of a small upper frequency limit and noise.The suggested cutting force measuring system is composed of two piezo load cells placed between the moving table bracket and the nut flange of the ball screw. It has many advantages, such as lower cost and a wider measurement range than the tool dynamometer, over using the built-in feeding system and the low-cost piezo load cell for applying a conventional machining center.This paper focuses on the performance test of a newly developed measuring system. By comparing the cutting force between the tool dynamometer and the system developed from a series of end milling experiments, the accuracy of the cutting force measurement system was verified. Linearity, transverse sensitivity and the upper frequency limit of the system were verified by experiment.     

Dynamic wireless passive strain measurement in CNC turning using surface acoustic wave sensors

Wireless, passive and dynamic surface acoustic wave (SAW) strain sensors are especially advantageous in applications with harsh environments where complex force measurements are required. High frequency multiple axis force measurement during machining processes typically requires state-of-the-art piezoelectric dynamometer technologies. Integrating dynamometers and their associated measurement chains into the machining environment typically requires significant modification to the machine structure. In this paper, SAW sensors were developed for process monitoring operations. Single-axis continuous and interrupted cutting investigations were carried out using the SAW technology installed on cutting tool holders demonstrating high dynamic bandwidth strain measurement. SAW dual-axis oblique cutting measurements were carried out where four SAW sensors were set up as two differential pairs each measuring a single axis of applied force. Improvements in sensitivity and cross-talk compensation has been realised. High-frequency wireless passive realtime process signals are presented from a passive wireless SAW force measurement system successfully integrated into an LT15 Okuma machining centre. The paper aims to present wireless passive SAW technology as a potentially platform changing approach for process and tool condition monitoring applications in the future.     

Development and evaluation of tool dynamometer for measuring high frequency cutting forces in micro milling

A tool dynamometer is developed for measuring the high frequency cutting forces, and evaluated in micro milling of aluminum 6061-T6 using a tungsten carbide (WC) micro end mill. To improve the accuracy and productivity of the machining process, it is essential to monitor and control the machining process by measuring cutting forces. In order to improve the precision and quality of machined parts, high-speed machining with smaller micro tools is required, causing higher frequency cutting forces. The first natural frequency of tool dynamometers is high enough to precisely measure the high cutting forces. We investigate dynamic characteristics of the tool dynamometer theoretically and experimentally. The measurable frequency range of the developed tool dynamometer was higher than the commercial tool dynamometer, and the measured cutting force signals were not distorted at high-speed of above 60,000 rpm. The results showed that the developed dynamometer is able to measure the static and dynamic force components in high-speed micro milling.     

Dynamic characterization of multi-axis dynamometers

In this paper, we present a comprehensive technique for accurate determination of three-dimensional (3D) dynamic force measurement characteristics of multi-axis dynamometers within a broad range of frequencies. Many research and development efforts in machining science and technology rely upon being able to make precise measurements of machining forces. In micromachining and high-speed machining, cutting forces include components at frequencies significantly higher than the bandwidth of force dynamometers. Further, the machining forces are three-dimensional in nature. This paper presents a new experimental technique to determine the three-dimensional force-measurement characteristics of multi-axis dynamometers. A custom-designed artifact is used to facilitate applying impulsive forces to the dynamometer at different positions in three dimensions. Repeatable and high-quality impulse excitations are provided from a novel impact excitation system with a bandwidth above 25 kHz. The force measurement characteristics are presented within 25 kHz bandwidth using 3 × 3 force-to-force frequency response functions (F2F-FRFs), which capture both direct and dynamic cross-talk components to enable fully three-dimensional characterization. The presented approach is used to characterize the dynamic behavior of a three-axis miniature dynamometer. The effects of force-application position, artifact geometry, and dynamometer-fixturing conditions are explored. Moreover, the relationship between the force-measurement characteristics and structural dynamics of the dynamometer assembly is analyzed. It is concluded that the presented technique is effective in determining the force-measurement characteristics of multi-axis dynamometers. The changes in dynamometer assembly that affect its structural dynamics, including artifact (workpiece) geometry and especially the fixturing conditions, were seen to have a significant effect on force-measurement characteristics. Furthermore, the force-measurement characteristics were seen to change substantially with the force-application position. The presented technique provides a foundation for future compensation efforts to enable measuring forces within a broad range of frequencies.     

An optimization method of the machining parameters in high-speed machining of stainless steel using coated carbide tool for best surface finish

High-speed machining (HSM) has emerged as a key technology in rapid tooling and manufacturing applications. Compared with traditional machining, the cutting speed, feed rate has been great progress, and the cutting mechanism is not the same. HSM with coated carbide cutting tools used in high-speed, high temperature situations and cutting more efficient and provided a lower surface roughness. However, the demand for high quality focuses extensive attention to the analysis and prediction of surface roughness and cutting force as the level of surface roughness and the cutting force partially determine the quality of the cutting process. This paper presents an optimization method of the machining parameters in high-speed machining of stainless steel using coated carbide tool to achieve minimum cutting forces and better surface roughness. Taguchi optimization method is the most effective method to optimize the machining parameters, in which a response variable can be identified. The standard orthogonal array of L₉ (3⁴) was employed in this research work and the results were analyzed for the optimization process using signal to noise (S/N) ratio response analysis and Pareto analysis of variance (ANOVA) to identify the most significant parameters affecting the cutting forces and surface roughness. For such application, several machining parameters are considered to be significantly affecting cutting forces and surface roughness. These parameters include the lubrication modes, feed rate, cutting speed, and depth of cut. Finally, conformation tests were carried out to investigate the improvement of the optimization. The result showed a reduction of 25.5% in the cutting forces and 41.3% improvement on the surface roughness performance.     

基于仿真的数控铣削加工参数优化研究

针对数控铣削加工参数优化问题,通过加工仿真,计算每一走刀步的切削深度和切削宽度并划分区间。在每一个由组合划分区间内所有刀步构成的一个加工特征组合段上建立了多目标优化模型,模型采用遗传算法对每一加工特征组合段的加工参数进行优化,自动修改NC程序中的加工参数并反映优化结果。应用实例证明,提出的多目标优化模型和优化求解算法正确、有效。     

基于几何与公差信息的加工特征识别方法

为实现计算机辅助设计与计算机辅助工艺规划系统的有效集成,提出了一种同时利用几何信息和公差信息的加工特征识别新方法。建立了加工资源、加工表面和加工方法三类信息模型。提出了切削模式的概念及以之为基础的表面加工方法生成原理和过程。建立了表面加工方法优化选择模型。采用多目标模糊优化结合蚁群算法求解该模型,为每个加工表面选择最优加工方法,并将在同次装夹中采用同一刀具类型和加工条件进行加工的表面聚为加工特征。最后,通过实例测试,验证了该方法的正确性和有效性。     

MACHINING PARAMETERS OPTIMIZATION FOR ALUMINA BASED CERAMIC CUTTING TOOLS USING GENETIC ALGORITHM

Alumina-based ceramic cutting tools can be operated at higher cutting speeds than carbide and cermet tools. This results in increased metal removal rates and productivity. While the initial cost of alumina based ceramic inserts is generally higher than carbide or cermet inserts, the cost per part machined is often lower. Production cost is the main concern of the industry and it has to be optimised to fully utilize the advantages of ceramic cutting tools. In this study, optimization of machining parameters on machining S.G. iron (ASTM A536 60-40-18) using alumina based ceramic cutting tools is presented. Before doing the optimization work, experimental machining study is carried out using Ti [C,N] mixed alumina ceramic cutting tool (CC 650) and Zirconia toughened alumina ceramic cutting tool (Widialox G) to get actual input values to the optimization problem, so that the optimized results will be realistic. The optimum machining parameters are found out using Genetic algorithm and it is found that Widialox G tool is able to machine at lower unit production cost than CC 650 tool. The various costs affecting the unit production cost are also discussed.     

MACHINING PARAMETERS OPTIMIZATION FOR ALUMINA BASED CERAMIC CUTTING TOOLS USING GENETIC ALGORITHM

Alumina-based ceramic cutting tools can be operated at higher cutting speeds than carbide and cermet tools. This results in increased metal removal rates and productivity. While the initial cost of alumina based ceramic inserts is generally higher than carbide or cermet inserts, the cost per part machined is often lower. Production cost is the main concern of the industry and it has to be optimised to fully utilize the advantages of ceramic cutting tools. In this study, optimization of machining parameters on machining S.G. iron (ASTM A536 60-40-18) using alumina based ceramic cutting tools is presented. Before doing the optimization work, experimental machining study is carried out using Ti [C,N] mixed alumina ceramic cutting tool (CC 650) and Zirconia toughened alumina ceramic cutting tool (Widialox G) to get actual input values to the optimization problem, so that the optimized results will be realistic. The optimum machining parameters are found out using Genetic algorithm and it is found that Widialox G tool is able to machine at lower unit production cost than CC 650 tool. The various costs affecting the unit production cost are also discussed.     

薄板类零件加工精度可靠性分析及工艺参数优化

针对薄板类零件加工过程中加工变形导致加工精度低的问题,利用有限元法和高斯过程回归算法建立了加工变形预测模型,综合考虑机床运动误差与工件加工变形,对薄板件加工精度可靠性进行分析,建立了以加工效率和平均加工变形为目标、加工精度可靠度为约束的铣削加工工艺参数优化设计模型,并利用多目标优化算法进行求解,确定了协调加工效率和加工变形最优的工艺参数组合。案例研究结果表明,经优化设计后最低加工精度可靠度达到98.21%,平均加工变形减小21.14%,加工效率提高了4.18%,为薄板类零件铣削加工工艺参数选择提供了一种可行的方法。     

金属电化学线切割加工装置的设计及其实现

金属电化学线切割加工技术是利用电化学加工原理进行金属切割的一种新加工工艺。文中根据金属电化学线切割加工技术工艺原理,建立了制造工艺过程与设备机械之间的关系,设计并制作完成了该工艺装置。该装置主要由机床床身模块、运动执行模块、电解液系统模块、工艺装备模块4部分构成。     

Measurement of high-frequency milling forces using piezoelectric dynamometers with dynamic compensation

Piezoelectric dynamometers are widely used to measure machining forces during milling operations. While dynamometers are precise in measuring the low-frequency content of machining forces, their electromechanical dynamics distort the high-frequency content of the forces, resulting in critical measurement errors particularly in high-speed or highly intermittent milling processes. Existing methods (e.g. Augmented Kalman Filter) that are used to remediate the high-frequency content of the forces measured by dynamometers require tuning multiple parameters based on prior knowledge of the measurement noise and accurate models of the dynamometer dynamics, which continuously change during the process as material is machined away from the workpiece. Two new methods are presented in this paper to address this issue. The first method uses regularized deconvolution to estimate machining forces from the output signal of the dynamometer. In this method, regularization does not require prior knowledge of the measurement noise or variations of the system dynamics, but it cannot be implemented in online force monitoring and control systems. The second method designs a Sliding Mode Observer (SMO) to estimate milling forces recursively at each measurement timestep. The SMO can be implemented in online force estimation, is robust against the variations of system dynamics, and requires tuning only one gain that is independent from the system dynamics or measurement noise. The presented experimental results verify the effectiveness of these methods in accurately estimating high-frequency milling forces from dynamometer measurements.     

Cutting forces prediction in generalized pocket machining

Cutting force prediction is important for the planning and optimization of machining process. This paper presents an approach to predict the cutting forces for the whole finishing process of generalized pocket machining. The equivalent feedrate is introduced to quantify the actual speed of cutting cross-section in prediction of cutting force for curved surface milling. For convenience, to analyze the process with varying feed direction and cutter engagement, the milling process for generalized pocket is discretized into a series of small processes. Each of the small processes is transformed into a steady-state machining, using a new approximation method. The cutting geometries of each discrete process, i.e., feed direction, equivalent feedrate per tooth, entry angle, and exit angle are calculated based on the information refined from NC code. An improved cutting force model which involves the effect of feed direction on cutting forces prediction is also presented. A machining example of a freeform pocket is performed, and the measured cutting forces are compared with the predictions. The results show that the proposed approach can effectively predict the variation of cutting forces in generalized pocket machining.     

An experimental investigation into the comparison of the performance characteristics of TiN and ZrN coatings on split point drills using the static and stochastic models of the force system as a signature

This paper presents a comparison of the performance characteristics of TiN (Titanium nitride) and ZrN (Zirconium nitride) coatings on split point drills. The objective of this work was to choose the better coating for machining tough materials like INCONEL. This leads to an increased productivity of drilling holes in certain components of environmental control systems and fuel control systems (in aerospace industry) made of tough materials like INCONEL. The comparison of the performance characteristics was based on the measurement of the mean values and dynamic fluctuations of the cutting force and the number of holes drilled under the same optimum machining conditions. The measurements were carried out using two specially designed piezoelectric dynamometers. The dynamometer was calibrated from static and dynamic outputs and techniques were employed for increasing the measuring accuracy and reducing the cross interference by obtaining the elements of the tranfer function. Power spectrum plots of the drift force, axial force and torque were obtained so that these plots may be used as a signature. Results show that the ZrN coating is better than the TiN coating because (a) the mean values of the axialforce, drift force and torque are smaller, thus improving the roundness, (b) the dynamic flutuations of the forces and torque about the mean are smaller thus improving the surface quality of the holes produced, (c) the number of holes before the failure of the drill is about three times more for a ZrN coated split point drill as compared to a TiN coated drill.     

Optimization of machining parameters using genetic algorithm and experimental validation for end-milling operations

Optimization of cutting parameters is valuable in terms of providing high precision and efficient machining. Optimization of machining parameters for milling is an important step to minimize the machining time and cutting force, increase productivity and tool life and obtain better surface finish. In this work a mathematical model has been developed based on both the material behavior and the machine dynamics to determine cutting force for milling operations. The system used for optimization is based on powerful artificial intelligence called genetic algorithms (GA). The machining time is considered as the objective function and constraints are tool life, limits of feed rate, depth of cut, cutting speed, surface roughness, cutting force and amplitude of vibrations while maintaining a constant material removal rate. The result of the work shows how a complex optimization problem is handled by a genetic algorithm and converges very quickly. Experimental end milling tests have been performed on mild steel to measure surface roughness, cutting force using milling tool dynamometer and vibration using a FFT (fast Fourier transform) analyzer for the optimized cutting parameters in a Universal milling machine using an HSS cutter. From the estimated surface roughness value of 0.71 μm, the optimal cutting parameters that have given a maximum material removal rate of 6.0×10³ mm³/min with less amplitude of vibration at the work piece support 1.66 μm maximum displacement. The good agreement between the GA cutting forces and measured cutting forces clearly demonstrates the accuracy and effectiveness of the model presented and program developed. The obtained results indicate that the optimized parameters are capable of machining the work piece more efficiently with better surface finish.     

Fast prediction of chatter stability lobe diagram for milling process using frequency response function or modal parameters

Prediction of chatter stability is important for planning and optimization of machining process in order to improve machining efficiency and reduce machining damage. Based on the classical analytical solution of chatter stability for milling process and in-depth analysis of the impact of modal parameters on the stability lobe diagram, a straight forward procedure for fast predicting stability lobe diagram directly using modal parameters of machining system was put forward. In consideration of the fact that the modal parameters of milling system can be estimated directly from the frequency response function using single DOF modal parameter estimation method, stability lobe diagram can be plotted directly using the tool tip’s frequency response function. The machining performances of a machining center with three different cutting tools were evaluated and the corresponding optimized cutting conditions were determined. The correctness of the proposed method was validated by good agreement of the predicted stability lobe diagram with that using the classical analytical method, and simulation results show that its calculation speed had been improved by 2–3 orders of magnitude. As a result, the proposed method of plotting stability lobe diagram using frequency response function can be utilized as an effective tool to select chatter-free cutting conditions in shop floor applications.     

Anisotropic force ellipsoid based multi-axis motion optimization of machine tools

The existing research of the motion optimization of multi-axis machine tools is mainly based on geometric and kinematic constraints, which aim at obtaining minimum-time trajectories and finding obstacle-free paths. In motion optimization, the stiffness characteristics of the whole machining system, including machine tool and cutter, are not considered. The paper presents a new method to establish a general stiffness model of multi-axis machining system. An analytical stiffness model is established by Jacobi and point transformation matrix method. Based on the stiffness model, feed-direction stiffness index is calculated by the intersection of force ellipsoid and the cutting feed direction at the cutter tip. The stiffness index can help analyze the stiffness performance of the whole machining system in the available workspace. Based on the analysis of the stiffness performance, multi-axis motion optimization along tool paths is accomplished by mixed programming using Matlab and Visual C++. The effectiveness of the motion optimization method is verified by the experimental research about the machining performance of a 7-axis 5-linkage machine tool. The proposed research showed that machining stability and production efficiency can be improved by multi-axis motion optimization based on the anisotropic force ellipsoid of the whole machining system.     

基于广域空间的自由曲面宽行加工方法

为提高自由曲面环形刀五轴精加工的效率,在广域空间中分析刀具的干涉误差,对曲面宽行加工的刀具方位优化方法进行研究。首先根据环形刀刀具特性,定义曲面可能干涉的区域为广域空间,然后将广域空间离散点集变换至刀具坐标系中,计算刀具刀刃曲面的干涉误差,从而构建刀具的实际切削轮廓,并在此基础上精确计算有效的加工带宽。最后,通过建立刀具方位与加工带宽的函数关系,以加工带宽最大化为目标,实现环形刀五轴宽行加工刀具方位的自动优化。算例及试验表明,在相同的残留高度要求下,广域空间方法较之现有的二阶泰勒逼近方法,切触点轨迹长度减少了15.74%,说明基于广域空间的刀轴优化方法是实现自由曲面宽行加工的有效途径。     

基于数控铣削动力学仿真切削数据库系统的设计

数据库技术应用于金属切削领域越来越受到国内外制造业的重视.文中针对当前国内数控加工过程中加工参数的选择、存储等问题,在加工过程动力学仿真技术的基础上,开发了一套面向数控铣削动力学仿真的数据库管理系统.该系统以Microsoft.net架构开发,以微软主推的新一代网络编程语言C#实现,数据库管理软件采用SQL Server2000.可以有效地为数控加工行业提供动力学仿真优化参数,提高加工效率,系统也提供了数据维护功能,方便用户对加工参数进行修整.     

一次走刀立铣加工优化与CAM软件开发

研究了数控机床一次走刀立铣加工的计算机辅助优化与CAM软件的开发。基于最大生产率原则建立了数控机床一次走刀立铣加工的优化数学模型,采用数学分析与图形表达结合的方法开发了一种全局优化策略与CAM软件。这种优化策略不仅能够获得全局最优解,缩短优化时间,而且也适用于以最低成本为目标的优化过程。试验验证了该优化策略不仅具有比手册数据更好的经济性,还可以评估及改善机床性能。