Effects of static pressure,pressurization, and depressurization on n‐heptane pool fires in an airplane cargo compartment

The cargo compartment of an airplane in flight is a complex environment with dynamic pressure (pressurization and depressurization), nonconservative oxygen, and unidirectional ventilation. In this study, n‐heptane pool fires were performed under static pressure, pressurization, and depressurization in a full‐scale airplane cargo compartment. The static pressure included 30 and 90 kPa, the pressurization was from 30 to 90 kPa at rates of 6, 12, 19, and 25 kPa/min, while the depressurization was from 90 to 30 kPa at rates of 6, 12, 17, and 20 kPa/min. The effects of pressure, oxygen concentration, and ventilation on pool fire characteristics including fuel mass loss rate (MLR), flame centerline temperature, and flame shape under each condition were concluded. The results show that the predominant factor of MLR was different in three conditions. The flame is divided into four regimes, in which the fuel vapor regime is used to emphasize the influence of fuel vapor on flame temperature above the fuel surface. The concept of average flame shape is put forward to reflect the flame occurrence probability. And its bottom, which named average flame root, presents the negative correlation with compartment pressure.     

Influence of powder size on characteristics of air plasma sprayed silicon coatings

Silicon powders with different medium sizes (114 μm, 79 μm and 31 μm, respectively) were used to fabricate coatings by air plasma spraying. The velocity and temperature of in-flight silicon particles during plasma spraying were determined. The composition and microstructure of the coatings were characterized and some physical properties of the coatings were measured. The obtained results showed that the size of silicon particles had great influence on their velocity and temperature in plasma flame. The oxidation of silicon particles in the spraying process was observed and is higher for particles of smaller sizes. Areas of silicon oxide in micrometer size are embedded and randomly distributed in the coating. The surface roughness and void content of silicon coatings increase with an increase in the particle size of the powders. The microhardness and oxygen content of coatings decrease with an increase in the particle size. However, the size of silicon particles has little impact on the deposition efficiency of silicon under the same deposition conditions.     

A model of splats deposition state and wear resistance of WC-10Co4Cr coating

In this research both low temperature high velocity oxygen-fuel flame (LT-HVOF) and high velocity oxygen-fuel flame (HVOF) techniques were employed to prepare WC-10Co4Cr splats and coatings. In situ cutting of WC-10Co-4Cr splats was carried out with focused ion beam (FIB), and a model was proposed to describe how the wear resistance of WC-10Co4Cr coatings was correlated with its residual stress state and the splats deposition state. It was observed that in LT-HVOF spraying process, WC-10Co4Cr splats were slightly melted showing "hill" shape, while in HVOF spraying process, the splats were half melted having the appearance of "concavity". The residual stress of WC-10Co4Cr coatings is determined by the size, melting state, flight speed and temperature gradient of splats. In this paper, the quantitative function formula involving heating temperature and the flight speed of the powder is put forward for the first time to predict the wear resistance of the WC-10Co4Cr coatings. This will provide a theoretical basis for engineering practice and an effective way to save costs.     

Process modelling of thermal spraying for thermoset coatings

Thermal spraying has the ability to coat large components and structures on site. It has been used to deposit thermoplastic coatings but little work has been done on thermosets. To form a thermoset coating by thermal spraying, the feedstock particles have to melt in the flame without degradation but also the coating itself must then be cured by the end of the deposition process. The particle residence time in a typical thermal-spray flame during deposition is less than 0.01 s, whereas conventional thermoset powders need orders of magnitude more time at the baking temperature to achieve a sufficient degree of cure. However, the freshly deposited coating also receives heat from the scanning flame during thermal-spray deposition, which should contribute to the curing process. This effect is complicated by the fact that the heat input during scanning varies with time. To control the curing process, therefore, a full understanding of the interaction between the flame, coating and substrate is essential. In this paper, experimental trials and computer simulations were carried out aimed at controlling the temperature profiles of the thermoset deposit to enable sufficient cure to take place. Software developed by the authors was used to simulate flame scanning and post heat treatment. Commercial software was also applied to simulate steady-state infrared heating. The results indicate that process parameters have a critical effect on the properties of the coatings and can be optimized with the aid of computer simulation.     

Influence of Thermally Assisted Machining Parameters on the Machinability of Inconel 718 Superalloy

The present study describes the effect of thermally assisted machining (TAM) parameters on the cutting force, tool wear and surface integrity characteristics (surface roughness, surface topography, and microhardness) of Inconel 718. An inexpensive flame heating technique using oxy-acetylene flame is used to heat the workpiece material. The TAM parameters such as cutting speed, feed rate, depth of cut, and workpiece temperature were selected as process parameters over cutting force, tool wear and surface integrity characteristics.The experimental results reveal that the cutting forces and surface roughness decrease with increases in cutting speed and workpiece temperature, while the workpiece temperature increases as tool wear decreases. The tool wear mechanisms observed were abrasive, adhesive, diffusion and notch wear. The XRD results of thermally assisted machining reveal that neither phase change nor broadening of the peaks were observed at different machining conditions.     

倾斜角对液体燃料润湿条件下砂床表面火蔓延的影响

利用纹影系统、CCD相机以及K型热电偶对正丁醇润湿条件下不同角度的砂床表面火蔓延特性进行了研究,分析了不同砂床表面倾角对火蔓延的影响机理。研究结果表明:正丁醇润湿条件下变角度砂床表面火焰是稳定匀速蔓延的,向上蔓延时,火焰的高度、黄色发光区以及蔓延速度随着倾角的增加而增大;向下蔓延时,火焰的高度、黄色发光区以及蔓延速度随着倾角的增加而减小;蔓延火焰前方存在预热区,且预热区随表面倾角的增大而增大:砂层内部存在热边界层,且砂床热边界层厚度随表面倾角的增加而减小。得到的火蔓延特性及燃烧机理为此类液体燃料的储存、使用以及环境保护提供了一定的科学依据。     

高浓度丙酮VOCs高温预热近极限贫燃预混火焰特性的数值分析

为进一步对一种丙酮挥发性有机化合物（VOCs）焚烧炉进行设计优化和运行参数调节,本文对其在不同的燃料当量比、预热温度下的火焰特性进行了数值模拟,分析了其绝热火焰温度、着火延迟时间、火焰传播速度和一维火焰产物分布特性。研究结果表明：典型当量比（约0.113）下的绝热火焰温度为850~900℃,属于中低温燃烧,绝热火焰温度随预热温度和当量比（0.06~0.4）的升高均线性升高。预热温度和化学当量比对着火延迟时间的影响十分敏感。在其典型贫燃条件下,层流火焰传播速度随预热温度升高呈指数函数关系增大,随化学当量比增大而缓慢升高,且其层流火焰传播速度不超过150cm/s。反应过程首先发生丙酮的分解和部分氧化,并持续时间较长,仅当混合物的温度升高一定程度后才发生较剧烈的CO氧化。     

含草酸钾的超细水雾抑制甲烷爆炸的特性

为研究含草酸钾的超细水雾对抑制甲烷爆炸有效性的影响,采用自制的半封闭管道进行抑爆实验,研究了草酸钾浓度的变化对超细水雾粒径的影响以及对甲烷抑爆性能的影响,分析了不同浓度草酸钾条件下火焰传播速度、爆炸超压、平均升压速率以及爆炸威力指数参数变化。实验结果表明：添加草酸钾对超细水雾的粒径特性影响较小;对于体积分数为9.5%的甲烷,在相同的通雾时间下,当草酸钾浓度为2%时,抑爆性能最显著,火焰传播速度、最大爆炸超压、平均升压速率以及爆炸威力指数较纯甲烷自由爆炸时分别下降了57.1%、66.3%、77.9%、91.5%;较纯水超细水雾分别下降了43.1%、61.3%、75.3%、90.5%;草酸钾的热解温度较低能够增强超细水雾的物理惰化作用并阻断化学链式反应从而有效抑制甲烷爆炸。     

Microstructure and electrical properties of plasma sprayed Gd0.15Ce0.85O2-δ coatings from solution combustion synthesized flowable powders

Powders of Gadolinia doped Ceria (Gd_0.15Ce_0.85O_2-δ (GDC)), a promising electrolyte material for intermediate temperature solid oxide fuel cell has been prepared by solution combustion (SC) synthesis. Variation of fuel to oxidizer ratio in the synthesis results in the GDC powder with varied powder characteristics. Fuel deficient combustion reaction results in GDC powder with smaller crystallites size but with larger agglomerates; whereas reaction with near stochiometric amount of fuel leads to the GDC powder with larger crystallite size and smaller agglomerates. Powders with large agglomerates possess required particle size, shape and flowability characteristics appropriate for plasma spraying. Electrolyte coatings fabricated from the synthesized plasma spray grade powders exhibit superior inter splat adhesion and conductivity (∼0.02 S/cm at 600 °C). Dense nature of the coating is ascribed to the complete melting of the porous GDC particles in the plasma flame. Powders prepared with stochiometric fuel are suitable for tape casting process.     

The effects of transient heat release rate and crosswind on flame length and tilt angle of flames at different positions in the spread of fire over a diesel pool

The spread of fire over liquid fuel is a common phenomenon, and it has been demonstrated experimentally that the flame length and tilt angle change with the transient heat release rate and different positions of the flame. The coupling relationship between these factors is studied in this paper. The experiments are composed of a rectangular pool with dimensions of 80 cm × 6 cm × 5 cm and crosswind with speeds of 0.8 to 2.4 m/s. Diesel is used as the fuel, and a new method is applied to ensure that the initial temperature of the diesel is constant during ignition. The results show that the traditional method of luminous flame intermittency may not be suitable for studying the geometric characteristics of the spread of fire over a pool, and a new method is proposed. In addition, the transient variation of flame length in different positions of the pool is shown to fluctuate around a mean flame length. The evolution of flame tilt angle along the longitudinal direction of the pool exhibits a U‐shaped curve. Moreover, the multivariate nonlinear relationships of mean flame length and tilt angle among the heat release rate, fire position, and wind speed are established, and relevant coefficients are determined.     

Effects of particle size distribution and sintering temperature on properties of alumina mold material prepared by stereolithography

Alumina mold materials prepared by stereolithography usually have considerable sintering shrinkage, and their properties related to casting have been rarely studied. In this study, alumina molds materials were prepared by stereolithography, and the effects of particle size distribution and sintering temperature on the properties of the materials were investigated. Results show that the viscosity of the slurries decreases as the fraction of fine powder increases, and the particle size distribution affects the curing behaviors slightly. Sintering shrinkage increases as the fraction of fine powder or the sintering temperature increases. Although lower sintering shrinkage can be achieved by sintering at 1350 °C or 1450 °C, the mold materials sintered at lower temperatures would continue to shrink under the service temperature of 1550 °C, and thus 1550 °C is determined as the optimal sintering temperature. As the fraction of fine powder increases, the creep resistance first increases and then decreases, and specimens prepared with 0.1 fraction of fine powder exhibit the best creep resistance with the droop distance of 4.44 ± 0.45 mm. Specimens prepared with 0.1 fraction of fine powder and sintered at 1550 °C exhibit linear shrinkage of 6.36% along the X/Y direction and 11.39% along the Z direction, and have a flexural strength of 78.15 ± 3.50 MPa and porosity of 30.12 ± 0.08%. The resulting material possesses relatively low sintering shrinkage, proper mechanical strength, porosity and high-temperature properties that meet the requirements for casting purposes.     

平膜加工工艺条件对聚丙烯制品性能的影响

利用ME 30/9100V3平膜机加工聚丙烯制品。探讨了料筒温度、冷辊温度、主机转速和牵引速度等因素对制品性能的影响,并确定了ME 30/9100V3平膜机加工S 1003的最佳工艺参数。     

Experimental investigation of ultrasonic-vibration polishing of K9 optical glass based on ultrasonic atomization

K9 optical glass has an important position in the field of optical material because of its excellent chemical stability and optical projection. The hard and brittle characteristics of K9 optical glass make conventional processing difficult and time-consuming. A non-conventional hybrid polishing system combining ultrasonic atomization (UA) spraying method and axial ultrasonic vibration was developed for processing K9 optical glass. This system utilizes the high-frequency vibration characteristics of ultrasonic vibration technology: On the one hand, the ultrasonic atomization spraying method is used to generate evenly distributed atomized droplets for polishing, on the other hand, the axial ultrasonic vibration of the polishing tool provides impact kinetic energy for the free abrasive particles. Mechanical polishing (MP), ultrasonic-assisted polishing (UVP), mechanical polishing under ultrasonic atomization spraying (UA-MP) and ultrasonic vibration polishing under ultrasonic atomization spraying (UA-UVP) were carried out on K9 optical glass. The material removal rate (MRR), material removal depth (MRD), surface quality and surface micromorphology of the polished workpieces were also analyzed and compared. The experimental results showed that the best surface was obtained at UA-UVP (A_Ⅰ = 9 μm) with MRR of 0.0994 mm³/min, material removal depth of 26.816 μm, the Ra and Sa values were 0.028 μm and 0.033 μm respectively. Meanwhile, no obvious pits and scratches were observed on the micromorphological surface. Ultrasonic atomization contributes to even material removal from the polished surface and axial ultrasonic vibration of the polishing tool has a significant effect in improving the polishing characteristics, which provides the experimental basis for applying ultrasonic vibration technology in polishing.     

Potential for the formation of respirable fibers in carbon fiber reinforced plastic materials after combustion

Fundamental aspects for the thermal decomposition and formation of respirable fragments of carbon fibers are investigated to assess the health hazard of carbon fiber reinforced plastic material after a fire. The influence of temperature (600°C‐900°C)/heat flux (30‐80 kW/m²), time of thermal load (up to 20 minutes), and oxygen exposure is analyzed by means of mass loss and fiber diameter of intermediate modulus and high tenacity fibers with initial diameters of 5 to 7 μm. Various types and concentrations of flame retardants were tested with respect to fiber protection. Epoxy‐based composite specimens (RTM6/G0939) additionally containing aluminum or magnesium hydroxide and/or zinc borate (1‐25 wt% per resin) were analyzed by cone calorimetry. Carbon fiber decomposition increases with combustion/irradiation time and temperature/heat flux, after a threshold temperature (ca 600°C) is exceeded. Critical fiber diameters below 3 μm are reached within minutes and are predominantly observed close to the panel surface in contact with air. Effective fiber protection is achieved by flame retardants acting beyond 600°C, forming thermally resistant layers such as zinc borate. A new field of research is opened identifying flame retardants, which protect carbon fibers in carbon fiber reinforced plastic.     

挤出工艺对长碳链尼龙管断裂伸长率的影响

通过挤出工艺生产长碳链尼龙(PA)11管,并采用火焰热处理方式对PA11管进行后处理,借助拉伸试验设备对PA11管的断裂伸长率进行评价。研究了不同的挤出模具温度(模温)、挤出速度、冷却水温和火焰热处理强度等工艺参数对PA11管断裂伸长率的影响。结果表明,PA11管的断裂伸长率随着模温和火焰热处理强度的升高呈现先升高后降低的趋势,随着挤出速度和冷却水温的降低而升高。生产PA11管最佳的工艺参数为模温235℃、挤出速度25 m/min、冷却水温20℃、火焰热处理强度40%,此时PA11管的断裂伸长率达到219%,拉伸后试样表面的“橘皮状”缺陷消失。     

发射药装药结构对炮口烟焰的影响

针对身管武器装备炮口烟焰严重的问题,以5.8mm弹道枪为试验平台,测定了枪口烟雾粒径和可见光透过率;以30mm和某大口径火炮为试验平台,测定了不同发射药装药的炮口火焰面积;研究了消焰剂粒度、消焰剂药包装填位置、发射药弧厚、可燃支撑筒长度等装药结构对炮口烟焰的影响。结果表明,消焰剂(K2SO4)粒径从160μm降至3μm,有助于提高消焰效果,但会引起炮口烟雾的可见光透过率下降;消焰剂用量相同时,含顶部和底部消焰剂药包的组合结构抑制火焰效果优于仅含顶部消焰剂药包的结构;发射药弧厚从1.8mm增至2.0mm时,炮口火焰面积增大;炮口火焰面积随着可燃支撑筒长度增加而增大。     

Short fiber spraying process of all-oxide ceramic matrix composites: A parameter study

Fiber spraying processes have been established for polymer matrix composites for decades. In this study, we transferred an automated fiber spraying process to short fiber bundle-reinforced Nextel 610/ Al₂O₃-ZrO₂ oxide fiber composites (SF-OFC). The effect of the processing factors travel height, spray angle, and movement speed on the specimen strength was analyzed in a full factorial experimental design. As a result, the significance of the travel height as well as the interaction between travel height and movement speed was demonstrated. Furthermore, the influence of the fiber length (14, 28, 56, and 112 mm) on the bending stress and strain was investigated. Independent of the used fiber length, the SF-OFC exhibited an excellent quasi-ductile fracture behavior with bending strains in the range of .6% and in-plane isotropic material properties. The average bending strength increased from 133 ± 27 MPa with 14 mm fiber reinforcements to 163 ± 29 MPa with 112 mm fibers. The achieved bending strengths clearly exceeded the off-axis properties of currently used fabric-reinforced OFC. These properties, combined with the excellent drapability and cost effectiveness, make the novel material highly promising for industrial applications such as flame tubes, burner nozzles, kiln furnitures, or foundry components.     

Influence of fuel ash composition on high temperature aerosol formation in fixed bed combustion of woody biomass pellets

In this work, the influence of fuel ash composition on high temperature aerosol formation during fixed bed combustion of woody biomass (two wood pellets and one bark pellets) were investigated experimentally in a laboratory reactor and theoretically through chemical equilibrium model calculations. For all fuels, the particle mass size distribution in the PM_2.5 region was bimodal, with one fine mode and one coarse mode. Early in the flame, the fine mode was dominated by particles from incomplete combustion and these particles were rapidly oxidised in the post flame zone. After the hot flame, the fine mode concentration and the particle diameter increases gradually when the temperature decreases due to condensation of vaporised inorganic matter, K, Na, S, Cl, and Zn. For two of the fuels also P could be found in the fine particles. The coarse mode consisted of carbon, refractory metals and considerable amount of alkali. Further, the initial fuel alkali concentration and the alkali to silicon ratio (K + Na)/Si influenced the amount of vaporised aerosol forming alkali matter. Finally, the present study shows that, combustion temperature and fuel ash composition is of major importance for the formation of high temperature aerosols in fixed bed combustion of woody biomass pellets.     

预混富氧燃烧火焰特性的实验研究

对预混富氧燃烧的火焰特性进行实验研究,结果表明:富氧浓度在21%～30%的范围内变化时,随着氧含量的增加,燃烧反应速率和火焰传播速度逐渐增加,进而引起燃烧区的缩小和温度梯度的增加。并且火焰高温区逐渐缩小,最高火焰温度逐渐增高,并且最高温度点向烧嘴口方向移动。     

The influence of ultrasound on the thermal behaviour of clay minerals

The aim of this work is to compare the influence of sonication on the thermal behaviour of kaolinites (KGa-1, KGa-2), pyrophyllite, talc and muscovite. Sonication produces a significant increase of the specific surface area due to particle size reduction. As sonication time increases and the particle size decreases, the thermal behaviour of these clay minerals is strongly modified. Thus, there is a significant increase of the weight loss at low temperature which is related to the loss of some outer hydroxyl groups and protonated hydroxyls whose proportion in the minerals increase as the new surface generated increases. Additionally, the original endothermic dehydroxylation effects of all these minerals shift to lower temperatures. Disordered kaolinite shows the smallest shift (9 °C) while muscovite presents the largest (184 °C). A linear relation has been established between the temperature shift of the dehydroxylation and the percentage of increase in the specific surface area. The influence of sonication on the high temperature DTA effects of kaolinite, pyrophyllite, and muscovite is also studied.