Gender differences in erotic plasticity—evolutionary or sociocultural forces? Comment on Baumeister (2000).

R. F. Baumeister (2000) (see record 2000-15386-001) argued that there are gender differences in erotic plasticity, meaning that women are more influenced by cultural and social factors than men are. He attributed the gender difference in erotic plasticity to evolutionary, biological forces. We propose an alternative account of the data using a multifactor sociocultural model that rests on 4 assertions: (a) Men have more power than women on many levels including the institutional and the interpersonal levels, (b) education increases women's power, (c) groups with less power (women) pay more attention to and adapt their behavior more to the group with more power (men) than the reverse, and (d) gender roles powerfully shape behavior, and heterosexuality is a more important element of the mate role than the female role. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cultural suppression of female sexuality.

Four theories about cultural suppression of female sexuality are evaluated. Data are reviewed on cross-cultural differences in power and sex ratios, reactions to the sexual revolution, direct restraining influences on adolescent and adult female sexuality, double standard patterns of sexual morality, female genital surgery, legal and religious restrictions on sex, prostitution and pornography, and sexual deception. The view that men suppress female sexuality received hardly any support and is flatly contradicted by some findings. Instead, the evidence favors the view that women have worked to stifle each other's sexuality because sex is a limited resource that women use to negotiate with men, and scarcity gives women an advantage. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in response to erotica? Love versus lust.

Examined gender differences in response to varying erotic themes in 2 experiments. In Exp I, 30 unmarried male and 32 unmarried female undergraduates viewed an erotic film portraying petting; this film was prefaced with instructional sets that established either a love theme (affectionate marital sex) or a lust theme (unemotional sex with a prostitute). In Exp II, 36 married couples (the majority of which had at least 1 member who was a university student) viewed either a petting erotic film or one depicting coitus; these films were prefaced with instructional sets that established either the love or lust themes or a casual-sex theme (a chance sexual encounter). Arousal, affective, and evaluative responses to these stimuli were assessed using an 11-item feelings scale, Self-report of Sexual-Physiological Relations, and the Interpersonal Judgment Scale. Results of Exp I confirm the effectiveness of the thematic manipulation and indicate that males and females were not differentially responsive to the love or lust themes along any of the response dimensions. Results of Exp II replicate this finding and indicate that both men and women were more sexually aroused by the casual-sex theme than by those involving love or lust. Apparently, romantic or affectional emphasis is not a precondition for female arousal by erotica. Methodological and conceptual issues relating to the discrepancy between the often-cited female indifference to erotica and the present findings for equal male–female arousal responses are discussed. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of sex guilt, repression, sexual "arousability," and sexual experience on female sexual arousal during erotica and fantasy.

Hypothesized that, among women who were asked to fantasize about sex, erotic preexposure would facilitate arousal during the fantasy, and arousal would be greater among those who had less sex guilt, those who were more arousable, those who were more experienced, and sensitizers. 62 female Ss (aged 18–53 yrs) were randomly assigned to view either an erotic or a nonerotic videotape. All Ss then imagined and wrote out a sexual fantasy. Sexual arousal was measured subjectively by self-report ratings and physiologically by continuous vaginal photoplethysmograph recording. Ss high in sex guilt reported less arousal but showed significantly greater physiological arousal during the erotic videotape than did Ss low in sex guilt. For the high sex-guilt Ss, the erotic videotape facilitated physiological arousal during fantasy. Ss low in sexual arousability and low in sexual experience followed a similar pattern. No significant differences were found for repression-sensitization. Results point toward a pattern of behavioral inhibition that facilitates increased response to forbidden erotica. (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in cooperation: A meta-analytic review of social dilemmas.

Although it is commonly believed that women are kinder and more cooperative than men, there is conflicting evidence for this assertion. Current theories of sex differences in social behavior suggest that it may be useful to examine in what situations men and women are likely to differ in cooperation. Here, we derive predictions from both sociocultural and evolutionary perspectives on context-specific sex differences in cooperation, and we conduct a unique meta-analytic study of 272 effect sizes—sampled across 50 years of research—on social dilemmas to examine several potential moderators. The overall average effect size is not statistically different from zero (d = –0.05), suggesting that men and women do not differ in their overall amounts of cooperation. However, the association between sex and cooperation is moderated by several key features of the social context: Male–male interactions are more cooperative than female–female interactions (d = 0.16), yet women cooperate more than men in mixed-sex interactions (d = –0.22). In repeated interactions, men are more cooperative than women. Women were more cooperative than men in larger groups and in more recent studies, but these differences disappeared after statistically controlling for several study characteristics. We discuss these results in the context of both sociocultural and evolutionary theories of sex differences, stress the need for an integrated biosocial approach, and outline directions for future research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Toward an understanding of risk factors for bulimia.

Explores why women in general are more prone to develop bulimia than men and which women in particular have a higher risk of becoming bulimic. Risk factors for bulimia are discussed in terms of sociocultural variables, such as the central role of beauty in the female sex-role stereotype; developmental processes; psychological variables; and biological factors, including genetic determinants of weight, the disregulation of body weight and eating through dieting, affective instability, and family variables. The sociocultural and psychological mediators that contribute to the increased risk of bulimia in this era are discussed, including a shift toward an increased emphasis on thinness, the effects of media attention on dieting and bulimia, fitness, and shifting sex roles. Results indicate that female socialization is a major contributing factor in bulimia. Although significantly fewer men than women currently show evidence of bulimia, it is hypothesized that the general pressure on men to become conscious of physical fitness and appearance, together with certain male subcultures that emphasize weight standards, will lead to an increased incidence of bulimia in men. (5? p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in emotional responses to erotic literature.

Compared the effect on male and female undergraduates (n = 112) of reading an erotic passage from a novel; control Ss (n = 112) read a passage from a psychology textbook. Men reported more sexual arousal, interest, and joy in response to the erotic passage, and women reported more disgust. Differences were significant but not large. The sexes did not differ as to fear or guilt reactions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A meta-analytic review of research on gender differences in sexuality, 1993–2007.

In 1993 Oliver and Hyde conducted a meta-analysis on gender differences in sexuality. The current study updated that analysis with current research and methods. Evolutionary psychology, cognitive social learning theory, social structural theory, and the gender similarities hypothesis provided predictions about gender differences in sexuality. We analyzed gender differences in 30 reported sexual behaviors and attitudes for 834 individual samples uncovered in literature searches and 7 large national data sets. In support of evolutionary psychology, results from both the individual studies and the large data sets indicated that men reported slightly more sexual experience and more permissive attitudes than women for most of the variables. However, as predicted by the gender similarities hypothesis, most gender differences in sexual attitudes and behaviors were small. Exceptions were masturbation incidence, pornography use, casual sex, and attitudes toward casual sex, which all yielded medium effect sizes in which male participants reported more sexual behavior or permissive attitudes than female participants. Most effect sizes reported in the current study were comparable to those reported in Oliver and Hyde’s study. In support of cognitive social learning theory, year of publication moderated the magnitude of effect sizes, with gender differences for some aspects of sexuality increasing over time and others decreasing. As predicted by social structural theory, nations and ethnic groups with greater gender equity had smaller gender differences for some reported sexual behaviors than nations and ethnic groups with less gender equity. Gender differences decreased with age of the sample for some sexual behaviors and attitudes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A method for empirically assessing volunteer selection effects: Recruitment procedures and responses to erotica.

Examined whether 58 male and 47 female undergraduates who were recruited for a study on erotica responded in a similar manner to an erotic film as 29 male and 26 female undergraduates who were recruited for research on a neutral topic, personality questionnaires. In Part 1 of the study, all Ss answered questionnaires, including the Bem Sex-Role Inventory and a sexual opinion survey, that assessed personality and demographic characteristics. In Part 2, Ss watched the erotic movie and completed a feelings scale. Findings indicate that conclusions about prior sexual experience, sexual opinions, and affective responses to the erotic film were qualified by recruitment condition. Ss who volunteered for the experiment on erotica were more sexually experienced and, for women, were significantly more erotophilic than Ss who volunteered for the research on personality questionnaires. Results suggest that volunteer selection can have an important effect on experimental results and demonstrate a method for assessing the extent of these effects. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A longitudinal study of conversations with parents about sex and dating during college.

Emerging adulthood is a time of sexual and romantic relationship development as well as change in the parent–child relationship. This study provides a longitudinal analysis of 30 young adults’ (17 women, 13 men) sexual experiences, attitudes about sexuality and dating, and reported conversations with parents about sexuality and dating from the 1st and 4th years of college. Self-report questionnaires revealed increases in general closeness with parents, increases in sexual and dating experiences, and more sexually permissive as well as more gender stereotyped attitudes. Qualitative analyses of individual interviews indicated a movement from unilateral and restrictive sex-based topics to more reciprocal and relationship-focused conversations over time. Gender analyses revealed that young women reported more restrictive sex messages and young men more positive sex messages. Participants also described increased openness and comfort in talking about sexual topics with both mothers and fathers from the 1st to 4th year of college. Overall, the results suggest that prior findings of increased mutuality with parents during the college years extend to the traditionally taboo topic of sexuality. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social motives and cognitive power–sex associations: Predictors of aggressive sexual behavior.

The present study investigated whether implicit social motives and cognitive power–sex associations would predict self-reports of aggressive sexual behavior. Participants wrote stories in response to Thematic Apperception Test pictures, which were scored for power and affiliation–intimacy motives. They also completed a lexical-decision priming task that provided an index of the strength of the cognitive association between the concepts of "power" and "sexuality." For men, high levels of power motivation and strong power–sex associations predicted more frequent aggression. There was also an interaction: Power motivation was unrelated to aggression for men with the weakest power–sex associations. For women, high levels of affiliation–intimacy motivation were associated with more frequent aggression. Strong power–sex associations were also predictive for women but only when affiliation–intimacy motivation was high. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social anxiety, sexual behavior, and contraceptive use.

170 female and 90 male college students completed a questionnaire that provided information regarding their sexual experience, knowledge, and attitudes; their self-evaluations on dimensions related to sexuality; and their level of heterosocial anxiety (anxiety experienced in social interactions with members of the other sex). Compared with Ss low in heterosocial anxiety, highly anxious Ss were less sexually experienced, engaged in sexual activity less frequently, had fewer sexual partners, were less likely to have engaged in oral sex, expressed a higher degree of apprehension about sex, and had a somewhat higher incidence of sexual dysfunctions. In addition, low socially anxious women tended to use the pill, whereas highly anxious women preferred the condom. High and low heterosocially anxious Ss also differed on self-ratings related to their sexuality but did not differ in their attitudes or knowledge regarding sex. Results are discussed in terms of the cognitive, behavioral, and affective concomitants of social anxiety. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceived proposer personality characteristics and gender differences in acceptance of casual sex offers.

In a highly influential paper, Clark and Hatfield (1989) demonstrated that, whereas men were quite likely to accept a casual sexual offer from a confederate research assistant, women never did so. The current research provides a more in-depth explanation of gender differences in acceptance of casual sex offers via 4 (quasi-) experiments. First, using a person-perception paradigm, I assessed people's impressions of women and men who proposed a casual sexual encounter in the same manner that confederates in Clark and Hatfield did. Women and men agreed that female proposers were more intelligent, successful, and sexually skilled than men who made the same proposals. Second, I demonstrated that the large gender differences from the original Clark and Hatfield study could be eliminated by asking participants to imagine proposals from (attractive and unattractive) famous individuals, friends, and same-gender individuals. Next, I assessed factors associated with likelihood of agreeing to the casual sex proposal. The extent to which women and men believed that the proposer would be sexually skilled predicted how likely they would be to engage in casual sex with this individual. Finally, I examined these factors in the context of actual encounters from the participants' previous experiences, and the results were replicated in this context. Overall findings suggest that the large gender differences Clark and Hatfield observed in acceptance of the casual sex offer may have more to do with perceived personality characteristics of the female versus male proposers than with gender differences among Clark and Hatfield's participants and that sexual pleasure figures largely in women's and men's decision making about casual sex. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A theory of erotic orientation development.

It has been proposed that the content of an individual's erotic fantasies and the erotic stimuli that are sexually arousing to an individual (i.e., an individual's erotic orientation) is the core psychological dimension underlying sexual orientation. Although considerable research has been conducted on the basic processes by which individuals acquire erotic stimuli, it has not been integrated into a theory of erotic orientation development. Previous research is reviewed in this article, and a theoretical model is offered. It is proposed that erotic orientation emerges from an interaction between sex drive development and social development during early adolescence. Hypotheses are presented concerning the effects of variations in the timing of sex drive development and in patterns of social bonding on sexual orientation, and data relevant to those hypotheses are examined. Finally, the proposed theory is compared to extant theories of the causes of homosexuality. (76 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Variability among males in sexually selected attributes.

Greater male than female variability is found in behavioral and morphological traits in animals. A theory that greater male variability is associated with variability in parental investment is described and contrasted with sexual strategies theory, which posits no sex differences in variability. Predictions from the theories were tested through meta-analyses of variance ratios for data sets involving sexually selected characteristics analyses (physical aggression and 5 aspects of mate choice) and 2 unlikely to have resulted from sexual selection (anger and self-esteem). Variation was significantly greater among men than women in 5 of the 6 former data sets and was similar for men and women in the latter 2 data sets, broadly supporting the predictions. A further analysis extends the theory to intellectual abilities. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationship of sex guilt and moral reasoning to premarital sex in college women and in couples.

Used the Mosher Forced-Choice Guilt Inventory, the Sex Experience Inventory, and Kohlberg's Moral Dilemmas Questionnaire in Exp I to assess 119 unmarried college women with regard to sex behavior, sex guilt, and moral reasoning. Categories of sexual expression were developed which were useful in predicting behavior. Guilt was a better predictor of sex than morality. Maintaining virginity and losing it were multidetermined. Exp II assessed 76 unmarried college couples on the same variables. Sex guilt and sex experience were associated with moral reasoning for men and for couples. Results suggest that the male partner is more influential than the female in setting standards for the couple. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender and sexual orientation differences in sexual response to sexual activities versus gender of actors in sexual films.

In this study, the authors investigated the hypothesis that women's sexual orientation and sexual responses in the laboratory correlate less highly than do men's because women respond primarily to the sexual activities performed by actors, whereas men respond primarily to the gender of the actors. The participants were 20 homosexual women, 27 heterosexual women, 17 homosexual men, and 27 heterosexual men. The videotaped stimuli included men and women engaging in same-sex intercourse, solitary masturbation, or nude exercise (no sexual activity); human male-female copulation; and animal (bonobo chimpanzee or Pan paniscus) copulation. Genital and subjective sexual arousal were continuously recorded. The genital responses of both sexes were weakest to nude exercise and strongest to intercourse. As predicted, however, actor gender was more important for men than for women, and the level of sexual activity was more important for women than for men. Consistent with this result, women responded genitally to bonobo copulation, whereas men did not. An unexpected result was that homosexual women responded more to nude female targets exercising and masturbating than to nude male targets, whereas heterosexual women responded about the same to both sexes at each activity level. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Erotic transference through countertransference: The female therapist and the male patient.

Explores the female clinician's countertransference as the primary limiting factor in sexual transference. The female therapist, who may be unconsciously fearful of losing a boundary or being violated, may afford her male patient a less than optimal chance of understanding the shame attendant to his sexuality or the aggression that may be associated with it. Although sexual transference is the entree into the patient's psychic life, sexual countertransference is anathema, a double standard that is now coming under fire. Two cases are described in which men develop strong sexual transferences and engender stong countertransferences in return. Although these men were sexually overstimulated as children and possibly abused, the processes they undergo may be extrapolated to other male patient–female clinician dyads. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of erotic stimuli on male aggression toward females.

To examine the effects of highly erotic films on aggression toward females, 72 male undergraduates were first either angered or treated in a neutral manner by a male or female confederate. After viewing a highly erotic or a neutral film, Ss were given an opportunity to both aggress against and reward the confederate. Erotic films were found to increase aggression overall, but there was no indication of differential aggression as a function of sex of target. Results for physiological arousal, however, suggested that aggression was possibly inhibited for Ss exposed to an erotic film and paired with a female. Suggestions for future lines of research based on the notion of inhibition are offered, along with observations regarding the sexual arousal and aggression relationship. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of A tired woman's guide to passionate sex: Reclaim your desire and reignite your relationship.

Reviews the book, A tired woman's guide to passionate sex: Reclaim your desire and reignite your relationship by Laurie B. Mintz (2009). Statistics bear it out: The most common sexual complaint that women have is low desire, and the most common reason that women cite is being too tired for sex. A tired woman’s guide is a thorough, research-based, cognitive– behavioral self-help program to help women not only revive their interest in sex but also be more assertive and take more time for self-care, which is sorely absent in the contemporary lives of women. Because the author has taken care to eliminate the crass language that is sometimes found in popular books about sexuality, it is a book that a psychotherapist or health care provider could easily recommend without fear of offending a female client of any age. The book is organized into nine chapters and is written in a professional and friendly manner that will appeal to the lay reader. Although the purpose of the book is to educate and motivate a lay audience, the book would be improved by having specific references to research included so that a psychotherapist unacquainted with the research in the field of female sexual health would be able to do further reading or research on the topic. Even a brief list of references to major studies would be preferable to none at all. Second, the book lays the blame for being “too tired” squarely on the woman’s shoulders. Much is made of the woman’s task of helping her partner understand how she feels and what she wants. Although this is a good ideal, it assumes that the male partner is receptive to feedback or will make the requested changes. Although the author recommends pornography made for women by a woman, it may still be a potential turnoff for some readers. Clinicians need to be prepared for a potential exploration of the topic should they recommend the book. Still, A tired woman’s guide to passionate sex is better than many books on the topic. Perhaps because Mintz is brave enough to admit to her readers that she, herself, was a woman too tired for sex at one time and needed to go on her own journey to recover her lost libido, the book works as an empathic companion to the woman who is puzzled by her own lack of drive. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)