Occlusion, symmetry, and object-based attention: Reply to Saiki (2000).

J. Saiki (see record 2000-13210-027) argued that, because the stimuli used by M. Behrmann, R. S. Zemel, and M. C. Mozer (see record 1998-04674-001) were confounded by symmetry, conclusions about whether amodally completed objects can benefit from object-based attention are unwarranted. Here, the authors, examine J. Saiki's claim further and expand on their view of the mechanisms underlying object-based attention, suggesting that perceptual organization is the process whereby features from a single object are selectively attended. In light of this, they claim that heuristics such as symmetry and collinearity play an important role in the facilitation of features from a single object. In support of this claim, they present data from a further experiment using displays that exploit common fate, another grouping heuristic, and show that, under these conditions, the hallmark of object-based attention, a single-object advantage, is obtained for the occluded (amodally completed) shapes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A self-presentational view of psychotherapy: Reply to Hill, Gelso and Mohr (2000) and to Arkin and Hermann (2000).

The self-presentational view of psychotherapy challenges current assumptions about the benefits of high levels of clients' openness in therapy (A. E. Kelly, 2000; see record 2000-08364-001). The author responds to questions about whether clients' discretion really is linked to favorable therapy process ratings and outcomes (see record 2000-08364-002 and 2000-08364-003). She also addresses problems that may emerge if readers apply a narrow definition of self-presentation as a form of deliberate manipulation, rather than the intended definition of consciously or unconsciously showing oneself to be a particular kind of person for audiences. A brief review of the evidence on the role of audience feedback in self-concept change is offered, along with suggestions for explaining self-concept change to clients. The author concludes by clarifying and reasserting her suggestion that it is acceptable for clients to reveal the themes as opposed to details of their problems that seem particularly heinous or humiliating. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Revisiting the constraint attunement hypothesis: Reply to Ericsson, Patel, and Kintsch (2000) and Simon and Gobet (2000).

This article is part of an exchange concerning the contributions of the constraint attunement hypothesis (CAH) to the understanding of expertise effects in memory recall. K. A. Ericsson, V. Patel, and W. Kintsch (2000) and H. A. Simon and F. Gobet (2000) claim that the CAH is not novel and that existing theories of this phenomenon do not have the limitations that were attributed to them. In this reply, the CAH is argued to be the only theory of expertise effects in memory recall to adopt the abstraction hierarchy as a theory of the environment, a feature that has important theoretical implications. Also, other theories focus on psychological mechanisms but have not satisfied the burden of scientific proof required of process theories. Progress can be made by integrating the complementary advantages of existing theories into a unified theory that acknowledges the equally important roles of the organism and the environment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ethical knowledge, language, and the unconscious: Reply to Orange (2000).

The author replies to D. Orange's (2000) appreciative response to his article by exploring the notion of dialogical praxis and the relationship between unconsciousness and language. The moral and ethical aspects of analytic theory and practice are suggested to be indispensable in the effort to reconceptualize along practical or pragmatic lines. The author also favors the idea that language enriches and, to an extent, transforms and creates human experience, a view that is based on an encompassing view of language. It is suggested that only by appreciating how analytic theory and practice are embedded within a larger cultural stream of values and meanings will it be possible to sort out the contributions and limitations of psychoanalysis in the search for a more decent society and a more fulfilling way of life. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Egotism versus generalization-of-uncontrollability explanations of helplessness: Reply to Snyder and Frankel (1989).

M. L. Snyder and A. Frankel (see record 1990-09504-001) argue that our experiments (M. Kofta and G. S?dek; see record 1989-24900-001) were inadequate for testing the egotism theory of helplessness because they did not directly address the role of threat to self-esteem, the process held responsible for helplessness deficits by this theory. We reply that failure experience—the chief manipulation in these experiments—is critical for arousing threat to self-esteem. Therefore, our findings—that (a) noncontingency, not ego-threatening failure, is specifically responsible for helplessness deficits, and (b) availability of excuse for failure in the test phase augments performance deficits instead of mitigating them—call into question the validity of the egotism explanation of helplessness. We conclude that by and large, our study lends support to the original learned helplessness theory of Seligman and his associates. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Serial processing in reading aloud: Reply to Zorzi (2000).

K. Rastle and M. Coltheart (1999; see also M. Coltheart & K. Rastle, 1994) reported data demonstrating that the cost of irregularity in reading aloud low-frequency exception words is modulated by the position of the irregularity in the word. They argued that these data implicated a serial process and falsified all models of reading aloud that operate solely in parallel, a conclusion that M. Zorzi (2000) challenged by successfully simulating the position of irregularity effect with such a model. Zorzi (2000) further claimed that a reanalysis of K. Rastle and A Coltheart's (1999) data demonstrates sensitivity to grapheme-phoneme consistency (which he claimed was confounded across the position of irregularity manipulation) rather than the use of a serial process. Here, the authors argue that M. Zorzi's (2000) reanalyses were inappropriate and reassert that K. Rastle and A Coltheart's (1999) findings are evidence for serial processing. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Executive functioning and alcohol-related aggression: Reply to Weingartner (2000), Bates (2000), Lyvers (2000), Cherek (2000), and Berman (2000).

H. Weingartner (see record 2000-02949-018), M. E. Bates (see record 2000-02949-014), M. Lyvers (see record 2000-02949-017), D. R. Cherek (see record 2000-02949-016), and M. E. Berman (see record 2000-02949-015) put forth some very interesting and thought-provoking commentaries on the author's executive functioning framework for alcohol-related aggression (P. R. Giancola; see record 2000-02949-013). Many of their comments raised very important questions such as how executive functioning should be defined and conceptualized. Specifically, they asked whether executive functioning is better conceptualized as a unidimensional macroconstruct or as a set of related, yet independent, cognitive processes. Another key question was what other factors does executive functioning interact with to facilitate intoxicated aggression. Although these issues are far from being resolved, the author hopes that his article, their commentaries, and his responses will generate new research that will ultimately help to better predict and prevent alcohol-related aggression. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The importance of frameworks for directing empirical questions: Reply to Goodie and Fantino (2000).

A. S. Goodie and E. Fantino (see record 2000-16324-004) make two main criticisms of the predictions of M. C. Lovett and C. D. Schunn's (see record 1999-05245-001) RCCL model. (RCCL is pronounced 'ReCyCLe;" it stands for Represent the task, Construct a set of action strategies, Choose from among those strategies according to success rate, Learn new success rates.) In both cases, the authors believe the criticisms reflect a failure to appreciate the difference between broad frameworks and specific mathematical/computational models. In this article, the value of a broad framework, such as RCCL, in directing new empirical analyses and guiding theoretical development is shown. In particular, RCCL expands on existing work to reveal how variability and change in mental representations influence base-rate sensitivity. The authors also address several other issues raised by A. S. Goodie and E. Fantino (2000) and show that qualitative shifts in individuals' choice behavior are present in their original data—a key prediction of RCCL that does not appear in previous accounts. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ethnopsychologies: Reply to Wellman (1998) and Gauvain (1998).

Four main issues are considered in response to H. M. Wellman (see record 1997-42548-002) and M. Gauvain (see record 1997-42548-003): the relevance of adult data, the source of evidence for theories of mind, explaining development, and the proper focus of theory of mind research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reply to Bauer (2003) and Fisher (2003).

The author acknowledges the sophisticated understanding of his article (J. M. Natterson, 2003) on the part of both W. D. Bauer (2003) and D. J. Fisher (2003). The author discusses Bauer's and Fisher's concerns about the defensive idealization of the therapist and about a rigid programmatic imposition of love themes on therapy. There is also a response to the question of the philosophical basis for the basic role of love in therapy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Process, not representation: Reply to Radavansky (1999).

The size of fan effects is determined by processes at retrieval, not by whether or not information is represented as situations. Evidence contradicts G. A. Radvansky's (see record 1999-05245-005) claim that time to retrieve information from a situation does not depend on the number of elements in the situation. Moreover, Radvansky's principles for ascribing situational models to experiments appear to be post hoc ways of redescribing the data. On the other hand, the evidence does support the Adaptive Control of Thought—Rational (ACT-R) assumption that participants can adjust their attentional weightings and so produce differential fan effects. Moreover, the ACT-R theory of the fan effect is consistent with many other findings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reply to Strain, Patterson, and Seidenberg (2002).

E. Strain, K. E. Patterson, and M. S. Seidenberg (2002) reported an effect of imageability and a Regularity X Imageability interaction in a regression analysis of naming latencies to 120 words. One of their items (couth) was named correctly by just 5 of their 24 participants, and its reaction time was an outlier on their distribution. When that single item is removed, the significant predictors are age of acquisition (AoA), word frequency, regularity, and length. Analyses of the combined data from J. Monaghan and A. W. Ellis's (2002) Experiments 1-3 indicate that AoA predicts naming latencies for exception words but not consistent words. E. Strain et al.'s other points are considered in the light of these observations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Guiding assumptions, data, and minor pestilence: Reply to Tracey (1992) and Tinsley (1992).

In response to concerns raised by T. J. Tracey and H. E. Tinsley (see PA, Vol 79:17955 annd 17954, respectively), several issues are discussed. Research in a new area should incorporate a variety of methods and philosophies including those that are more empirical or discovery-oriented in focus rather than being driven solely by borrowed theory. Failure to acknowledge the differences between personal and career counseling has hampered expectations research in career counseling. No empirical basis currently exists for selecting the best assessment format for instruments measuring expectations in counseling. Both preference and anticipations rather than a single, global expectations construct need to be assessed in career counseling, and a reliable and valid assessment instrument is currently not available for that purpose. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mentalism, mechanisms, and medical analogues: Reply to Wakefield (1998).

J. C. Wakefield's (1998) critique of W. C. Follette and A. C. Houts's (1996) article is addressed by raising questions about (a) mentalism as a framework for studying psychopathology, (b) the nature of inferred mechanisms and the process of making such inferences, and (c) the accuracy of claiming that the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM; American Psychiatric Association) expansion is analogous to the success of physical medicine. The authors argue that Wakefield's analysis of mental disorders leads to the conclusion that the modern DSMs are not reflective of the progress of physical medicine. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Toward relationship-centered supervision: Reply to Veach (2001) and Ellis (2001).

The authors respond to comments made by P. A Veach (2001) and A Ellis (2001) regarding their research articles on supervision conflict and counterproductivity. Their findings are unique in that they provide qualitative perspectives on trainee experiences of negativity in supervision. Some of the criticism directed toward their study seemed grounded in positivistic epistemology, and they address the differences between that perspective and a more meaning-making approach to data analysis. The authors' studies point out that the supervision relationship has the potential to harm trainees. Counseling psychology and related fields need to define skill-based competencies in supervision that can be observed and measured, including relationship-management competencies. Training of supervisors should emphasize the development of clinical skills that permit them to build strong supervisory alliances and manage conflicts in supervision. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stress and specificity: Reply to Miller (2009).

T. F. Denson, M. Spanovic, and N. Miller (see record 2009-19763-001) meta-analytically tested the hypotheses that specific appraisals and emotions would predict cortisol and immune responses to laboratory stressors and emotion inductions. Although the cortisol data supported the integrated specificity hypothesis, G. E. Miller (see record 2009-19763-002) raised questions concerning the extent to which the immunity data supported specificity. The authors respond to these concerns. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Correction to Smith, McCarthy, and Anderson (2000).

Reports an error in the original article by Gregory T. Smith, Denis M. McCarthy, and Kristen G. Anderson (Psychological Assessment, 2000, Vol. 12, No. 1, pp. 102-111). Specifically, several formulas throughout the article contained errors. The corrected formulas are presented here. (The following abstract of this article originally appeared in record 2000-07311-012.) The empirical short-form literature has been characterized by overly optimistic views of the transfer of validity from parent form to short form and by the weak application of psychometric principles in validating short forms. Reviewers have thus opposed constructing short forms altogether, implying researchers are succumbing to an inappropriate temptation by trying to abbreviate measures. The authors disagree. The authors do not oppose the development of short forms, but they do assert that the validity standards for short forms should be quite high. The authors identify 2 general and 9 specific methodological sins characterizing short-form construction and offer methodological suggestions for the sound development of short forms. They recommend a set of 6 a priori steps researchers should consider and 9 methodological procedures researchers can use to develop valid abbreviated forms of clinical-assessment procedures. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Small, robust, and important: Reply to Sloan and Bagiella (2001).

Responds to R. P. Sloan and E. Bagiella's (see record 2001-06506-009)comments on the M. E. McCullough, et al (see record 2000-03769-001) article regarding religious involvement and morality. McCullough et al note that Sloan and Bagiella compared their findings with results from individual studies of hopelessness and physical activity that used criteria other than morality. The present authors argue that such comparisons are meaningless. Sloan and Bagiella's questioning of the statistical nonsignificance of the fully adjusted association is addressed. Methodological issues are also discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of computational models in neuropsychological investigations of language: Reply to Ruml and Caramazza (2000).

W. Ruml and A. Caramazza's (see record 2000-08671-010) analysis of the model of normal and aphasic lexical access proposed by G. S. Dell, M. F. Schwartz, N. Martin, E. M. Saffran, and D. A. Gagnon (see record 1997-30055-007) is completely at odds with current practice concerning the use of models in psychology. An evaluation of Dell et al.'s original claims using Ruml and Caramazza's model parameters sustains these claims in all respects. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Anger and approach: Reply to Watson (2009) and to Tomarken and Zald (2009).

C. S. Carver and E. Harmon-Jones (see record 2009-02580-003) reviewed evidence consistent with the idea that anger arises from a behavioral approach system. Commentary on that article by A. J. Tomarken and D. H. Zald (see record 2009-02580-005) raised questions about the many elements involved in acts of approach and limitations on what information can be provided by electroencephalograms. Commentary by D. Watson (see record 2009-02580-004) raised questions about the extensive psychometric evidence linking the negative affects. This article responds briefly to these issues. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)