Faster Self-Organizing Fuzzy Neural Network Training and a Hyperparameter Analysis for a Brain–Computer Interface

This paper introduces a number of modifications to the learning algorithm of the self-organizing fuzzy neural network (SOFNN) to improve computational efficiency. It is shown that the modified SOFNN favorably compares to other evolving fuzzy systems in terms of accuracy and structural complexity. An analysis of the SOFNN's effectiveness when applied in an electroencephalogram (EEG)-based brain-computer interface (BCI) involving the neural-time-series-prediction-preprocessing (NTSPP) framework is also presented, where a sensitivity analysis (SA) of the SOFNN hyperparameters was performed using EEG data recorded from three subjects during left/right-motor-imagery-based BCI experiments. The aim of this one-time SA was to eliminate the need to choose subject- and signal-specific hyperparameters for the SOFNN and thus apply the SOFNN in the NTSPP framework as a parameterless self-organizing framework for EEG preprocessing. The results indicate that a general set of NTSPP parameters chosen via the SA provide the best results when tested in a BCI system. Therefore, with this general set of SOFNN parameters and its self-organizing structure, in conjunction with parameterless feature extraction and linear discriminant classification, a fully parameterless BCI that lends itself well to autonomous adaptation is realizable.     

Two-phase classification: ANN and A-SVM classifiers on motor imagery BCI

Brain–Computer Interfaces (BCIs) based on Electroencephalograms (EEG) monitor mental activity with the ultimate objective of allowing people to communicate with computers only via their thoughts. Users must create precise cerebral activity patterns that the system uses as control signals to do this. A common activity used to elicit such signals is Motor Imagery (MI), in which certain signals are created in the sensorimotor cortex while imagining the movements. The three phases of the traditional EEG–BCI processing pipeline are preprocessing, feature extraction, and classification. We provide categorization advances and track performance gains in 4-class MI-based BCIs. In this study, 4-class MI events are produced via an illusory elevation of the left hand, right hand, feet, and tongue. Finally, a two-phase classification technique is provided with ANN classifiers being used in the first phase to discriminate between different pair-wise MI tasks. Secondly, an adaptive SVM classifier is used to assess the user's end task based on the weighted outputs of the classifiers. An adaptive classifier is one technique to maintain consistency in performance, reduce training time, and eliminate non-stationaries, all of which are required for efficient BCI performance. The suggested approach outperformed conventional two-stage classification algorithms on MI data, according to experimental findings. The average classification accuracy of this technique is 96% for datasets BCI competition IV 2a. This is a 4% improvement over the comparison approach.     

非侵入式脑—机接口编解码技术研究进展

脑—机接口（brain-computer interface,BCI）系统通过采集、分析大脑信号,将其转换为输出指令,从而跨越外周神经系统,实现由大脑信号对外部设备的直接控制,进而用于替代、修复、增强、补充或改善中枢神经系统的正常输出。非侵入式脑—机接口由于具有安全性以及便携性等优点,得到了广泛关注和持续研究。研究人员对脑信号编码方法的不断探索扩展了BCI系统的应用场景和适用范围。同时,脑信号解码方法的不断研发极大地克服了脑电信号信噪比低的缺点,提高了系统性能,这都为构建高性能脑—机接口系统奠定了基础。本文综述了非侵入式脑—机接口编解码技术以及系统应用的最新研究进展,展望其未来发展前景,以期促进BCI系统的深入研究与广泛应用。     

基于汉语音位发音想象的脑机接口研究

该文提出了一个基于汉语音位发音想象的脑机接口系统框架,使得受试者使用脑机接口系统时能更加自然和流畅。三名受试者参与了本实验研究,实验过程中受试者被要求想象四个汉语元音和四个辅音音位的发音部位及语音发音,以及一个不作想象任务的控制条件,同时记录其脑电数据。在数据处理阶段,本文对采集到的头皮脑电数据进行了频域、时域、空域分析,以提取出音位发音想象效应最优化的特征向量用于提高每两个条件间的配对分类效果。实验结果表明,音位发音想象效应的最优脑电频段为2~10Hz,时段为刺激呈现后300~500ms,头皮空间分布主要集中在感觉运动皮层区域。音位发音想象任务和控制条件相比具有较高的分类正确率,最高可达83%,为基于音位发音想象的汉语脑机接口系统研究提供了理论基础。此外,刺激材料间的Jaccard距离和分类正确率的高度相关性表明,音位发音想象任务可被视为复杂的发音器官运动想象任务,并且可由人脑感觉运动皮层区域的脑电信号来解码预测。     

Classification of primitive shapes using brain–computer interfaces

Brain–computer interfaces (BCIs) are recent developments in alternative technologies of user interaction. The purpose of this paper is to explore the potential of BCIs as user interfaces for CAD systems. The paper describes experiments and algorithms that use the BCI to distinguish between primitive shapes that are imagined by a user. Users wear an electroencephalogram (EEG) headset and imagine the shape of a cube, sphere, cylinder, pyramid or a cone. The EEG headset collects brain activity from 14 locations on the scalp. The data is analyzed with independent component analysis (ICA) and the Hilbert–Huang Transform (HHT). The features of interest are the marginal spectra of different frequency bands (theta, alpha, beta and gamma bands) calculated from the Hilbert spectrum of each independent component. The Mann–Whitney U-test is then applied to rank the EEG electrode channels by relevance in five pair-wise classifications. The features from the highest ranking independent components form the final feature vector which is then used to train a linear discriminant classifier. Results show that this classifier can discriminate between the five basic primitive objects with an average accuracy of about 44.6% (compared to naïve classification rate of 20%) over ten subjects (accuracy range of 36%–54%). The accuracy classification changes to 39.9% when both visual and verbal cues are used. The repeatability of the feature extraction and classification was checked by conducting the experiment on 10 different days with the same participants. This shows that the BCI holds promise in creating geometric shapes in CAD systems and could be used as a novel means of user interaction.     

EEG-Based Brain-Computer Interfaces: A Thorough Literature Survey

Brain–computer interface (BCI) technology has been studied with the fundamental goal of helping disabled people communicate with the outside world using brain signals. In particular, a large body of research has been reported in the electroencephalography (EEG)-based BCI research field during recent years. To provide a thorough summary of recent research trends in EEG-based BCIs, the present study reviewed BCI research articles published from 2007 to 2011 and investigated (a) the number of published BCI articles, (b) BCI paradigms, (c) aims of the articles, (d) target applications, (e) feature types, (f) classification algorithms, (g) BCI system types, and (h) nationalities of the author. The detailed survey results are presented and discussed one by one.

[Supplemental materials are available for this article. Go to the publisher's online edition of International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction to view the free supplemental file: Supplementary Tables.pdf.]     

Brain–computer interfacing: more than the sum of its parts

The performance of non-invasive electroencephalogram-based (EEG) brain–computer interfaces (BCIs) has improved significantly in recent years. However, remaining challenges include the non-stationarity and the low signal-to-noise ratio of the EEG, which limit the bandwidth and hence the available applications. Optimization of both individual components of BCIs and the interrelationship between them is crucial to enhance bandwidth. In other words, neuroscientific knowledge and machine learning need to be optimized by considering concepts from human–computer interaction research and usability. In this paper, we present results of ongoing relevant research in our lab that addresses several important issues for BCIs based on the detection of transient changes in oscillatory EEG activity. First, we report on the long-term stability and robustness of detection of oscillatory EEG components modulated by distinct mental tasks, and show that the use of mental task pairs “mental subtraction versus motor imagery” achieves robust and reliable performance (Cohen’s κ > 0.6) in seven out of nine subjects over a period of 4 days. Second, we report on restricted Boltzmann machines (RBMs) as promising tools for the recognition of oscillatory EEG patterns. In an off-line BCI simulation we computed average peak accuracies, averaged over ten subjects, of 80.8 ± 7.2 %. Third, we present the basic framework of the context-aware hybrid Graz-BCI that allows interacting with the massive multiplayer online role playing game World of Warcraft. We show how a more integrated design approach that considers all components of BCIs, their interrelationships, other input signals and contextual information can increase interaction efficacy.     

EEG-based BCI and video games: a progress report

This paper presents a systematic review of electroencephalography (EEG)-based brain–computer interfaces (BCIs) used in the video games, a vibrant field of research that touches upon all relevant questions concerning the future directions of BCI. The paper examines the progress of BCI research with regard to games and shows that gaming applications offer numerous advantages by orienting BCI to concerns and expectations of a gaming application. Different BCI paradigms are investigated, and future directions are discussed.     

A real-time BCI with a small number of channels based on CSP

For implementations of electroencephalography (EEG)-based brain computer interfaces (BCIs), common spatial pattern (CSP) is one of the most popular methods. Although many variations of CSP have been introduced, the original form is still quite effective and efficient. However, its application is usually based on multi-channels, which requires a relatively long time for electrode installation. The aim of this study is to build a BCI with CSP in a simple and practical way, with a few electrodes and Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA) as the classifier. Two experiments were carried out to compare effects of different numbers of channels and overlap of sliding windows. By optimizing these basic parameters, it is possible to build an easy-to-setup and effective BCI. The results showed that for four subjects with either 15/10 channels, the online trial accuracy could reach 83.9% on average. Comparable results could be obtained with only 5 channels.     

The stochastic approximation method for adaptive Bayesian classifiers: towards online brain�Ccomputer interfaces

Recent developments of brain–computer interfaces (BCIs) bring forward some challenging problems to the machine learning community, of which classification of time-varying electrophysiological signals is a crucial one. Constructing adaptive classifiers is a promising approach to deal with this problem. In this paper, Bayesian classifiers with Gaussian mixture models (GMMs) are adopted to classify electroencephalogram (EEG) signals online. We propose to use the stochastic approximation method (SAM) as the specific gradient descent method for parameter update and systematically derive the instantaneous gradient formulas with respect to mean values and covariance matrices in the distributions of a GMM. With SAM, the parameters of mean values and covariance matrices embodied in the Bayesian classifiers can be simultaneously updated in a batch mode. The online simulation of EEG classification tasks in a BCI shows the effectiveness of the proposed SAM.     

Berlin Brain–Computer Interface—The HCI communication channel for discovery

The investigation of innovative Human–Computer Interfaces (HCI) provides a challenge for future interaction research and development. Brain–Computer Interfaces (BCIs) exploit the ability of human communication and control bypassing the classical neuromuscular communication channels. In general, BCIs offer a possibility of communication for people with severe neuromuscular disorders, such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) or complete paralysis of all extremities due to high spinal cord injury. Beyond medical applications, a BCI conjunction with exciting multimedia applications, e.g., a dexterity discovery, could define a new level of control possibilities also for healthy customers decoding information directly from the user's brain, as reflected in EEG signals which are recorded non-invasively from the scalp.This contribution introduces the Berlin Brain–Computer Interface (BBCI) and presents set-ups where the user is provided with intuitive control strategies in plausible interactive bio-feedback applications. Yet at its beginning, BBCI thus adds a new dimension in HCI research by offering the user an additional and independent communication channel based on brain activity only. Successful experiments already yielded inspiring proofs-of-concept. A diversity of interactive application models, say computer games, and their specific intuitive control strategies are now open for BCI research aiming at a further speed up of user adaptation and increase of learning success and transfer bit rates.BBCI is a complex distributed software system that can be run on several communicating computers responsible for (i) the signal acquisition, (ii) the data processing and (iii) the feedback application. Developing a BCI system, special attention must be paid to the design of the feedback application that serves as the HCI unit. This should provide the user with the information about her/his brain activity in a way that is intuitively intelligible. Exciting discovery applications qualify perfectly for this role. However, most of these applications incorporate control strategies that are developed especially for the control with haptic devices, e.g., joystick, keyboard or mouse. Therefore, novel control strategies should be developed for this purpose that (i) allow the user to incorporate additional information for the control of animated objects and (ii) do not frustrate the user in the case of a misclassification of the decoded brain signal.BCIs are able to decode different information types from the user's brain activity, such as sensory perception or motor intentions and imaginations, movement preparations, levels of stress, workload or task-related idling. All of these diverse brain signals can be incorporated in an exciting discovery scenario. Modern HCI research and development technologies can provide BCI researchers with the know-how about interactive feedback applications and corresponding control strategies.     

基于卷积注意力机制的运动想象脑电信号识别

针对多类别运动想象脑电信号识别精度不高的问题,提出了一种融合注意力模块的卷积神经网络模型。该模型利用注意力模块充分挖掘脑电信号的通道和空间特征,建立其与识别任务之间的重要程度关系,从而提高运动想象脑电信号的识别准确率。信号经过共空间模式提高信噪比,利用小波变换将信号转换成二维时频图,通过注意力模块中通道和空间两个维度进行特征的调整,以强化有用特征弱化无用特征,使卷积网络充分提取更高层次的抽象特征,并最终执行运动想象任务的识别。分别在BCI竞赛IV Datasets 2a和BCI竞赛III-IIIa数据集上进行了有效性评价,并与卷积神经网络以及其他算法进行了比较。实验结果表明,提出的方法可达到良好的准确率,能够有效提高脑电信号运动想象任务的识别准确率。     

Multiband decomposition and spectral discriminative analysis for motor imagery BCI via deep neural network

Human limb movement imagery, which can be used in limb neural disorders rehabilitation and brain-controlled external devices, has become a significant control paradigm in the domain of brain-computer interface (BCI). Although numerous pioneering studies have been devoted to motor imagery classification based on electroencephalography (EEG) signal, their performance is somewhat limited due to insufficient analysis of key effective frequency bands of EEG signals. In this paper, we propose a model of multiband decomposition and spectral discriminative analysis for motor imagery classification, which is called variational sample-long short term memory (VS-LSTM) network. Specifically, we first use a channel fusion operator to reduce the signal channels of the raw EEG signal. Then, we use the variational mode decomposition (VMD) model to decompose the EEG signal into six band-limited intrinsic mode functions (BIMFs) for further signal noise reduction. In order to select discriminative frequency bands, we calculate the sample entropy (SampEn) value of each frequency band and select the maximum value. Finally, to predict the classification of motor imagery, a LSTM model is used to predict the class of frequency band with the largest SampEn value. An open-access public data is used to evaluated the effectiveness of the proposed model. In the data, 15 subjects performed motor imagery tasks with elbow flexion / extension, forearm supination / pronation and hand open/close of right upper limb. The experiment results show that the average classification result of seven kinds of motor imagery was 76.2%, the average accuracy of motor imagery binary classification is 96.6% (imagery vs. rest), respectively, which outperforms the state-of-the-art deep learning-based models. This framework significantly improves the accuracy of motor imagery by selecting effective frequency bands. This research is very meaningful for BCIs, and it is inspiring for end-to-end learning research.     

用于脑-机接口P300实验的支持向量机分类方法

脑-机接口(BCI)技术利用脑电来实现无动作的人机交互.P300字符拼写范式是利用脑电信号实现文字选择输入的一种重要BCI实验范式,它通过对EEG中的P300信号的检测和识别,来推断试验对象(被试)对字母的注意选择.以2005年脑一机接口竞赛中的一组P300字符拼写实验数据为处理对象,采用支持向量机(SVM)的机器学习方法进行算法设计,对信号通道进行了筛选,并采用较少的EEG通道数据进行处理.另外,通过调整参与训练的数据集大小,扩大了v-SVM中参数v的取值范围,更有利于分类器设计.通过上述策略,提高了该BCI实验范式中的系统总体分类精度.上述方法对于测试集字符最佳识别正确率可达到89%,相比于我们参加该届竞赛时所用的线性分类器(LDA),字符识别正确率提高了3%.     

Enhanced grasshopper optimization algorithm with extreme learning machines for motor-imagery classification

In Brain Computer Interface (BCI), achieving a reliable motor-imagery classification is a challenging task. The set of discriminative and relevant feature vectors plays a crucial role in classification. In this article, an enhanced optimization technique is implemented for selecting active feature vectors to enhance motor-imagery classification using Electroencephalography (EEG) signals. After collecting the input EEG signals from BCI competition III-4a and IV-2a databases, the 6th-order butter-worth filter is employed for eliminating base-line wander noise from the raw EEG signals. Further, the Variational Mode Decomposition technique is applied for separating the important signal components from the composite EEG signals, and then, the Higher Order Statistic, kurtosis, skewness, standard deviation, and entropy are utilized for feature extraction. The high-dimensional feature values are given to the Enhanced Grasshopper Optimization Algorithm for optimum feature selection, which are given to the Extreme Learning Machines (ELM) classifier for motor-imagery classification. Finally, in the resulting section, the optimized ELM model achieved 99.48% and 99.12% of accuracy on the BCI competition III-4a and IV-2a databases, where the achieved results are maximum compared to the traditional deep learning models.     

Independent component analysis for a low-channel SSVEP-BCI

Pattern Analysis and Applications - Generally, the more channels are used to acquire EEG signals, the better the performance of the brain–computer interface (BCI). However, from the...     

四类运动想象任务的脑电特征分析及分类

对多通道的四类运动想象脑电进行了研究。提出了采用表面拉普拉斯对多通道脑电进行预处理,消除各导联之间的相关性,提高信号的信噪比。实验证明表面拉普拉斯对分类正确率的提高有极大的帮助。然后使用OVR-CSP（One Versus the Rest Common Spatial Patterns）的方法,对四类运动想象任务的脑电信号进行特征提取。最后,应用设计的BP神经网络对提取的特征数据进行了分类,取得了较高的分类正确率。对基于不同频带脑电特征的分类情况进行了分析比较,得出了一些有参考价值的结论。     

Towards a Hybrid BCI Gaming Paradigm Based on Motor Imagery and SSVEP

Brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) not only can allow individuals to voluntarily control external devices, helping to restore lost motor functions of the disabled, but can also be used by healthy users for entertainment and gaming applications. In this study, we proposed a hybrid BCI paradigm to explore a feasible and natural way to play games by using electroencephalogram (EEG) signals in a practical environment. In this paradigm, we combined motor imagery (MI) and steady-state visually evoked potentials (SSVEPs) to generate multiple commands. A classic game, Tetris, was chosen as the control object. The novelty of this study includes the effective usage of a “dwell time” approach and fusion rules to design BCI games. To demonstrate the feasibility of the proposed hybrid paradigm, ten subjects were chosen to participate in online control experiments. The experimental results showed that all subjects successfully completed the predefined tasks with high accuracy. This proposed hybrid BCI paradigm could potentially provide those who suffer disability or paralysis with additional entertainment options, such as brain-actuated games, that could improve their happiness and quality of life.

Abbreviations: BCI: brain-computer interface; EEG: electroencephalogram; MI: motor imagery; SSVEP: steady-state visually evoked potential; ERP: event-related potential; SMR: sensorimotor rhythm; VEP: visual evoked potential; TCP/IP: transmission control protocol/internet protocol; GUI: graphical user interface; ERD/ERS: event-related desynchronization/synchronization; CIC: control intention classifier; LRC: left/right classifier; CSP: common spatial pattern; LDA: linear discriminant analysis; ROC: receiver operating characteristic; TPR: true positive rate; FPR: false positive rate; CCA: canonical correlation analysis.     

Light on! Real world evaluation of a P300-based brain-computer interface (BCI) for environment control in a smart home

Brain-computer interface (BCI) systems aim to enable interaction with other people and the environment without muscular activation by the exploitation of changes in brain signals due to the execution of cognitive tasks. In this context, the visual P300 potential appears suited to control smart homes through BCI spellers. The aim of this work is to evaluate whether the widely used character-speller is more sustainable than an icon-based one, designed to operate smart home environment or to communicate moods and needs. Nine subjects with neurodegenerative diseases and no BCI experience used both speller types in a real smart home environment. User experience during BCI tasks was evaluated recording concurrent physiological signals. Usability was assessed for each speller type immediately after use. Classification accuracy was lower for the icon-speller, which was also more attention demanding. However, in subjective evaluations, the effect of a real feedback partially counterbalanced the difficulty in BCI use. PRACTITIONER SUMMARY: Since inclusive BCIs require to consider interface sustainability, we evaluated different ergonomic aspects of the interaction of disabled users with a character-speller (goal: word spelling) and an icon-speller (goal: operating a real smart home). We found the first one as more sustainable in terms of accuracy and cognitive effort.     

Trial pruning based on genetic algorithm for single-trial EEG classification

We consider the problem of artifacts in electroencephalography (EEG) data. In a practical motor imagery based brain-computer interface (BCI) system, EEG signals are usually contaminated by misleading trials caused by artifacts, measurement inaccuracies, or improper imagination of a movement. As a result, the performance of a BCI system can be degraded. In this paper, we introduce a novel algorithm combining Gaussian mixture model (GMM) and genetic algorithm (GA) to detect the abnormal EEG samples. In addition, this algorithm can be also integrated with other data-driven feature exaction method (e.g., common spatial pattern (CSP)) so that a more reliable analysis can be obtained by pruning the potential outliers and noisy samples, and consequently the performance of a BCI system can be improved. Experimental results demonstrate significant improvement in comparison with the conventional mixture model.