Computer usage patterns of university faculty members across the life span

The purpose of this study was to examine age-related trends in computer utilization. Faculty members at a southeastern university completed a questionnaire regarding their use of computers in general and a specific computer application, the on-line library system at the campus library. The 521 respondents were divided into four age groups (ages 25–34, 35–44, 45–54, and 55–64 years). At least 90% of each age group reported using computers weekly or more, but older faculty members did not use as many different computer applications as the younger cohorts. All age groups were equally familiar with the on-line library system, but the older respondents reported being less comfortable using it. The older faculty members appeared to be selective in the computer applications they used and were interested in receiving training on the library system. There was little evidence that these older individuals were avoidant of new technology. The results are discussed in light of common stereotypes of older adults and their technology utilization.     

Computer use among older adults in a naturally occurring retirement community

Though computers and the Internet offer an opportunity to enhance the lives of older adults, rates of computer use among older adults are low relative to other age groups. This study examined patterns of computer use and barriers to use among 324 residents living in a suburban naturally occurring retirement community (NORC). One-third (36%) of the residents were actively using computers. Residents currently using computers were more likely to be younger, with more education, fewer functional impairments, and greater social resources. Results from a multidimensional scaling analysis suggested that common uses fell along two dimensions: a solitary–social dimension and an obligatory–discretionary dimension. Barriers to more frequent use included cost, complexity, ergonomic impediments, and a lack of interest. Results from this study could inform the development of services by taking into account how older adults prefer to use computers and their perceptions of the technology. We include practical recommendations for program developers.     

Computer use by older adults: A multi-disciplinary review

As the populations of most of the world’s developed nations experience an increase in average age, a similar trend is being observed in the population of computer and Internet users. In many cases, older adults are the fastest growing computer and Internet user group in both personal and workplace contexts. However, the needs and concerns of older adults as computer users differ from those of younger users as a result of the natural changes associated with the aging process. Much research has been conducted in a variety of fields in order to understand how these changes experienced by older adults impact their use of computers and the Internet. This article reviews this existing research and provides a holistic view of the field. Since the study of computer use by older adults is a multi-disciplinary topic by nature, we provide a synthesis of the findings across these many disciplines, and attempt to highlight any gaps that exist. We use Social Cognitive Theory as a lens to view and organize the literature, as well as illustrate means through which computer use by this user group can be encouraged. Finally, suggestions for future research are proposed, and implications for research and practice are discussed.     

Rethinking Reading for Age From Paper and Computers

The human–computer interaction research community has long been interested in the role of age in the use of computing devices. The current availability of large high-resolution displays and a growing community of older adults who use computers on a regular basis are examples of a changing landscape of users and devices that calls for a reevaluation of what we know about age and computers. This article presents two studies comparing the performance of young and older adults in reading tasks. In our studies, older adults outperformed young adults in terms of reading times and reading comprehension regardless of medium (paper or computer display). In addition, the overlap of confidence intervals for reading times and comprehension by medium suggests participants performed equally well regardless of medium. Both findings are in contrast to results from similar studies from the 1980s and 1990s.     

Computer use in older adults: Determinants and the relationship with cognitive change over a 6 year episode

Cognitively challenging activities may support the mental abilities of older adults. The use of computers and the Internet provides divergent cognitive challenges to older persons, and in previous studies, positive effects of computer and Internet use on the quality of life have been demonstrated. The present study addresses two research aims regarding predictors of computer use and the relationship between computer use and changes in cognitive abilities over a 6-year period in both younger (24-49 years) and older adults (older than 50 years). Data were obtained from an ongoing study into cognitive aging: the Maastricht Aging Study, involving 1823 normal aging adults who were followed for 9 years. The results showed age-related differences in predictors of computer use: the only predictor in younger participants was level of education, while in older participants computer use was also predicted by age, sex and feelings of loneliness. Protective effects of computer use were found for measures of selective attention and memory, in both older and younger participants. Effect sizes were small, which suggests that promotion of computer activities in older adults to prevent cognitive decline may not be an efficient strategy.     

The effects of computers on older adult users

This study examined the effects of computer anxiety and computer knowledge on self-efficacy and life satisfaction within the retired older adult computer users. Participants consisted of older adults (aged 53–88) recruited from computer clubs in Florida. Path analysis revealed that computer use helped to increase self-efficacy and lower computer anxiety thereby increasing overall life satisfaction. Gender differences in computer use were also examined. Males and females used computers at about the same rate but females reported more anxiety and less computer knowledge. Furthermore, more males reported using the Internet. Of those who reported using the Internet, more females reported browsing for health- and hobby-related information. The implications of these findings were discussed.     

The changing construct of computer anxiety for younger and older adults

A revalidation of a previously developed computer anxiety scale (Marcoulides, 1989) indicated changes in the factor structure for both younger and older adults. Two factors emerged — Direct and Indirect Involvement with computers — as compared with the previous two factors of General Computer Anxiety and Equipment Anxiety. This suggests that the construct of computer anxiety may have changed, perhaps because of the rapid changes in computers and the technological environment. Additional results showed that, while the factor structure was similar for younger and older adults, two items differentially loaded on the two factors. These results suggest the need for further examination of computer anxiety with older adults, with the possibility of developing computer anxiety scales specifically for older adults.     

Predicting older adults’ perceptions about a computer system designed for seniors

Although computer technology may be particularly useful for older adults (e.g., for communication and information access), they have been slower adopters than their younger counterparts. Perceptions about computers, such as perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use, can pose barriers to acceptance and universal access (Davis in MIS Q 13(3):319–340, 1989). Therefore, understanding the precursors to these perceptions for older adult non-computer users may provide insight into the reasons for their non-adoption. The authors examined the relationship between perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use of a computer interface designed for older users and demographic, technology experience, cognitive abilities, personality, and attitudinal variables in a sample of 300 non-computer-using adults between the ages 64 and 98, selected for being at high risk for social isolation. The strongest correlates of perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use were technology experience, personality dimensions of agreeableness and openness to experience, and attitudes. The emotional stability personality dimension was significantly correlated with perceived ease of use though not perceived usefulness. Hierarchical regression analysis revealed that attitudes (i.e., self-efficacy, comfort, and interest) remained predictive of perceptions of usefulness and ease of use when technology experience and personality variables were accounted for. Given that attitudes are more malleable than other variables, such as demographic and cognitive abilities, these findings highlight the potential to increase technology acceptance through positive experiences, appropriate training, and educational campaigns about the benefits of computers and other technologies.     

Gender differences and similarities in attitudes toward computers

Gender differences among university students in attitudes toward and involvement with computers were examined. Males were found to have taken more computer science courses, to be more knowledgeable about computer languages, to be more likely to want to major in computer science, and to have played video games more than females. There were no gender differences in reported nonvideo-game computer use or in exposure to computers in noncomputer science courses. Males and females did not differ on their reported personal interest in and enjoyment of computers. Consistent with previous research, however, males reported more comfort and confidence with computers and more positive attitudes toward mathematics than did females. Women believed more strongly than men that females should learn and are as capable of learning about computers and science as are males. It appears that these university women were as intrigued by computers as the men were. However, they were apparently somewhat inhibited from the pursuit of specialized training and careers in computer science. This inhibition may be linked to their anxiety about their own skills and to the communication, by male peers, of the attitude that women are less capable than men of learning about computers.     

Survey of handheld computing among medical students

The purpose of this study was to identify trends in the utilization and acceptance of handheld computers (personal digital assistants) among medical students during preclinical and clinical training. We surveyed 366 medical students and collected information on computer expertise, current handheld computer use, predicted future use, and user acceptance. Handheld computers were primarily used for personal applications by students during their preclinical training and as drug references and clinical calculators during their clinical training. In the future, all participants predicted they would use handheld computers at significantly higher rates and on a broader range of medical applications. The adoption of handheld computing was independent of user satisfaction. Those with more clinical experience were less satisfied with handheld computers, suggesting that the expectations of the more experienced users were not met. The lack of institutional support was seen as a key limitation.     

Modeling computer interest in older adults: the role of age, education, computer knowledge, and computer anxiety

We proposed a mediation model to examine the effects of age, education, computer knowledge, and computer anxiety on computer interest in older adults. We hypothesized that computer knowledge and computer anxiety would fully mediate the effects of age and education on computer interest. A sample of 330 older adults from local senior-citizen apartment buildings completed a survey that included an assessment of the constructs included in the model. Using structural equation modeling, we found that the results supported the hypothesized mediation model. In particular, the effect of computer knowledge operated on computer interest through computer anxiety. The effect of age was not fully mitigated by the other model variables, indicating the need for future research that identifies and models other correlates of age and computer interest. The most immediate application of this research is the finding that a simple 3-item instrument can be used to assess computer interest in older populations. This will help professionals plan and implement computer services in public-access settings for older adults. An additional application of this research is the information it provides for training program designers.     

Older adults' acquisition of word processing: The contribution of cognitive abilities and computer anxiety

This study examined relationships between computer attitude, computer experience, gender, cognitive abilities, and the acquisition of word processing by older adults. A total of 28 older adults (Mg. = 68.70 years) completed computer attitude questionnaires before and after a 6-week word-processing course and, additionally, completed spatial scanning, deductive, and inductive reasoning tests during the course. Gender differences were observed for attitudes towards computers, with females having a less positive attitude than males. Greater computer experience was associated with a more positive attitude, and with learning more word-processing knowledge during the course, replicating previous findings with young adults. No overall change in attitudes was found across the course, with the exception of computer liking; subjects tended to like computers less after the course, suggesting that the type of computer exposure may be an important factor in determining attitudes. Spatial scanning was found to be important in rapidly locating control keys for editing. Inductive and deductive reasoning were important predictors of word-processing knowledge, accounting for 60% of the variance. Identification of individual difference factors is a first step towards suggesting design changes in word-processing programs for older adults.     

The effect of aging on muscle activation and postural control pattern for young and older computer users

A lot of older adults try to learn to use computers and might use different ways to perform a computer task compared to younger people. Fifteen healthy young and 15 healthy older adults participated in this study and all performed a series of mouse tasks. A three dimensional motion capture system and electromyographic analysis were used to obtain kinematic and kinetic data during performing the computer tasks. Three-way analysis of variance with repeated measures on task and time factors was used to analyze all dependent measurements. Older adults had higher RMS of forearm muscles compared to the young adults. The RMS of the finger extensor was highest when performing a dragging task. Compared with young adults, the older adults had greater cranial-cervical angle and neck flexion, but smaller head flexion, shoulder angle, elbow angle and ulnar deviation. Consequently, the older adults might have a greater risk of developing musculoskeletal disorder.     

Evidence-based guidelines for the informal use of computers by children to promote the development of academic,cognitive and social skills

The use of computers in the home has become very common among young children. This paper reviews research on the effects of informal computer use and identifies potential pathways through which computers may impact children's development. Based on the evidence reviewed, we present the following guidelines to arrange informal computer experiences that will promote the development of children's academic, cognitive and social skills: (1) children should be encouraged to use computers for moderate amounts of time (2–3 days a week for an hour or two per day) and (2) children's use of computers should (a) include non-violent action-based computer games as well as educational games, (b) not displace social activities but should instead be arranged to provide opportunities for social engagement with peers and family members and (c) involve content with pro-social and non-violent themes. We conclude the paper with questions that must be addressed in future research.

Practitioner Summary: This paper reviews research on the effects of informal computer use on children's academic, cognitive and social skills. Based on the evidence presented, we have presented guidelines to enable parents, teachers and other adults to arrange informal computer experiences so as to maximise their potential benefit for children's development.     

The concept and correlates of computer anxiety

The introduction of computers into the lives and workplaces of many individuals represents a dramatic change. Zuboff has used the term 'computer-mediated' work to describe how the increasingly intellectual nature of work and the availability of computers is creating a revolution in the workplace. There is a real concern about how individuals react both cognitively and emotionally to the introduction of computer technology. The growth of the end-user computing phenomenon has made this concern more acute. Although many individuals have little difficulty using computers, there remains a far larger population of users who experience considerable difficulty learning how to use computer systems. Computer anxiety is a widely occurring phenomenon for this group of users, whose job performance and success may depend on their interaction with computers. Reviewing the literature, this paper describes the nature and correlates of computer anxiety and assesses training as a mechanism for reducing the impact of this anxiety. Limitations in current knowledge are noted and suggestions for further research are described.     

Internet use and non-use: views of older users

This paper reports the results of two connected surveys of computer and Internet use among the older population in the UK. One hundred and twenty questionnaires and interviews were completed with participants aged over 55 in Derbyshire and 353 questionnaires and interviews with over 50s in Scotland. Rates of use, computer and Internet activities, and reasons for use and non-use were investigated. These were backed up by four semi-structured interviews with IT trainers, describing experiences and issues of training this age group. The results indicate a “grey” digital divide, with many older people missing out on the benefits that computers and the Internet can provide. They also indicate some of the reasons why older people do not use computers and the Internet more. These suggest some practical ways forward, highlighting the importance of changing older people’s misconceptions about computers, better informing them about what they are, what they can do and how they can be of real practical use.

Text entry on handheld computers by older users

Small pocket computers offer great potential in workplaces where mobility is needed to collect data or access reference information while carrying out tasks such as maintenance or customer support. This paper reports on three studies examining the hypothesis that data entry by older workers is easier when the pocket computer has a physical keyboard, albeit a small one, rather than a touchscreen keyboard. Using a counter-balanced, within-subjects design the accuracy and speed with which adults over 55 years of age could make or modify short text entries was measured for both kinds of pocket computer. The keyboard computer was the Hewlett Packard 360LX (HP), but the touch-screen computers varied across studies (experiment 1: Apple Newton? and PalmPilot?; experiment 2: Philips Nino?; experiment 3: Casio E10?). All studies showed significant decrements in accuracy and speed when entering text via the touch-screen. Across studies, most participants preferred using the HP's small physical keyboard. Even after additional practice with the touch screen (experiments 2 and 3) many entries still contained errors. Experiment 3 showed that younger people were faster but not more accurate than older people at using the touch-screen keyboard. It is concluded that satisfactory text entry on palm-size computers awaits improvements to the touch-screen keyboard or alternative input methods such as handwriting or voice. Interface developments that assist older people typically benefit younger users too.     

A data mining technique for discovering distinct patterns of hand signs: implications in user training and computer interface design

Hand signs are considered as one of the important ways to enter information into computers for certain tasks. Computers receive sensor data of hand signs for recognition. When using hand signs as computer inputs, we need to (1) train computer users in the sign language so that their hand signs can be easily recognized by computers, and (2) design the computer interface to avoid the use of confusing signs for improving user input performance and user satisfaction. For user training and computer interface design, it is important to have a knowledge of which signs can be easily recognized by computers and which signs are not distinguishable by computers. This paper presents a data mining technique to discover distinct patterns of hand signs from sensor data. Based on these patterns, we derive a group of indistinguishable signs by computers. Such information can in turn assist in user training and computer interface design.     

A data mining technique for discovering distinct patterns of hand signs: implications in user training and computer interface design

Hand signs are considered as one of the important ways to enter information into computers for certain tasks. Computers receive sensor data of hand signs for recognition. When using hand signs as computer inputs, we need to (1) train computer users in the sign language so that their hand signs can be easily recognized by computers, and (2) design the computer interface to avoid the use of confusing signs for improving user input performance and user satisfaction. For user training and computer interface design, it is important to have a knowledge of which signs can be easily recognized by computers and which signs are not distinguishable by computers. This paper presents a data mining technique to discover distinct patterns of hand signs from sensor data. Based on these patterns, we derive a group of indistinguishable signs by computers. Such information can in turn assist in user training and computer interface design.     

Text entry on handheld computers by older users

Small pocket computers offer great potential in workplaces where mobility is needed to collect data or access reference information while carrying out tasks such as maintenance or customer support. This paper reports on three studies examining the hypothesis that data entry by older workers is easier when the pocket computer has a physical keyboard, albeit a small one, rather than a touch-screen keyboard. Using a counter-balanced, within-subjects design the accuracy and speed with which adults over 55 years of age could make or modify short text entries was measured for both kinds of pocket computer. The keyboard computer was the Hewlett Packard 360LX (HP), but the touch-screen computers varied across studies (experiment 1: Apple Newton and PalmPilot; experiment 2: Philips Nino; experiment 3: Casio E10). All studies showed significant decrements in accuracy and speed when entering text via the touch-screen. Across studies, most participants preferred using the HP's small physical keyboard. Even after additional practice with the touch screen (experiments 2 and 3) many entries still contained errors. Experiment 3 showed that younger people were faster but not more accurate than older people at using the touch-screen keyboard. It is concluded that satisfactory text entry on palm-size computers awaits improvements to the touch-screen keyboard or alternative input methods such as handwriting or voice. Interface developments that assist older people typically benefit younger users too.