Exploring how age,medication usage,and dentures effect the sensory perception and liking of oral nutritional supplements in older adults

Sensory perception of Oral Nutritional Supplements (ONS) by older and younger adults has been investigated, but few studies have examined the sensory perception of ONS within different older adult cohorts. This study sought to investigate effects of older age, dentures, and medications on sensory perception, liking, and intake of a high- and low-viscosity ONS (0.009 and 0.177 Pa.s respectively at 50.1 s⁻¹) and assess effects of ONS on appetite.Eighty older adults (51 aged 65–74 years, 29 aged 75 + years, mean age 74 ± 8 years, age range 65–97 years, 35 men, 45 women) evaluated two ONS over two different days. Each ONS (200 mL) was consumed over five sips (40 mL each). The panellists evaluated each sip using a check-all-that-apply questionnaire (CATA) comprising taste and texture attributes. After each CATA evaluation panellists recorded their liking using a 9-point hedonic scale followed by their hunger, fullness, desire to consume more ONS, and thirst using 100 mm visual analogue scales.The over 75 year olds had significantly lower appetite than the 65–74 year olds on tasting both ONS. Denture wearing influenced the mouthfeel while medication status effected the flavour perception of the high viscosity ONS. Liking did not change across the five sips for any study cohort, however, sensory perception changed with increasing sips. This study provides insight on factors affecting ONS adherence in older adults. Avoiding perceptions of watery/runny mouthfeel while maintaining creaminess may improve acceptability and adherence. The study justifies the CATA methodology for use in different older adult cohorts.     

Application of a check‐all‐that‐apply question for the evaluation of strawberry cultivars from a breeding program

BACKGROUND: Traditionally, breeding research has been focused on increasing yield and fruit size, improving resistance to diseases, behaviour during transport and increasing postharvest shelf‐life. However, consumers' liking is one of the biggest challenges for strawberry breeding programs. In this context, the aim of the present work was to evaluate the application of a check‐all‐that‐apply (CATA) question to study consumers' perception of new strawberry cultivars. RESULTS: Average liking scores were low for a highly appreciated product like strawberries, which could be explained considering unfavourable weather conditions prior to harvest. However, despite the small differences in overall liking scores, significant differences were found in the frequency in which 14 out of the 22 terms of the CATA question were used to describe samples. This suggests that the evaluated CATA question was able to detect differences in consumers' perception of the sensory characteristics of the evaluated cultivars. Moreover, a significant correlation was found between laboratory analyses (firmness, colour, soluble solids and acidity) and consumers' responses to the CATA question, which indicates their validity. CONCLUSIONS: Considering results from the present study, the use of CATA questions could be a simple and interesting methodology to gain insight into consumers' perception of different fruit cultivars. Copyright © 2010 Society of Chemical Industry     

Comparison of two sensory profiling techniques based on consumer perception

Eight chocolate milk desserts with different formulation were evaluated by two groups of consumers. Fifty consumers evaluated the samples and indicated their overall liking and answered a CATA question. Meanwhile, 40 consumers elicited up to four words to describe the desserts and completed a projective mapping task. Projective mapping and the check-all-that-apply question provided very similar sensory profiles for the evaluated milk desserts. Differences in the sensory characteristics of the samples were explained by differences in their formulations, which suggest the validity of the sensory profiles given by consumers. Projective mapping and the CATA question consisted on valuable tools to understand their perception of the sensory and hedonic characteristics of the desserts. These methodologies could consist on useful and interesting complimentary techniques to trained assessors’ data, being CATA question easier to understand and less time consuming for consumers.     

Check-all-that-apply (CATA) questions for sensory product characterization by consumers: Investigations into the number of terms used in CATA questions

In recent years methodological research into application of CATA questions has gained momentum. Yet, key questions for this approach remain unaddressed – how to generate the sensory terms that populate CATA questions and how many terms should be used. The second of these questions was addressed in seven consumer studies, involving a total of 735 consumers and five product categories (crackers, cheese, fruit-flavored drinks, chocolate, milk desserts). Sensory product characterizations elicited with “short” and “long” CATA questions (10–17 terms vs. 20–28 terms) were compared on a number of criteria such as frequency of CATA term use, product differences, spatial configurations (samples and terms) and task perceptions. Two strategies for generating “long” lists of CATA terms were examined: adding synonym terms to those already featuring on the “short” list (e.g., ‘hard’ and ‘firm’), and adding antonym terms to those already featuring on the “short” list (e.g., ‘hard’ and ‘not hard’ or ‘natural’ and ‘artificial’). Between-subjects experimental designs were used to compare product characterizations from “short” and “long” CATA questions. Results revealed that “short” and “long” lists of CATA terms generated largely similar results. In general, sample configurations were very similar, as were task perceptions. However, there were, at times, differences in frequency of CATA term use and term configurations, as well as instances where conclusions about sample differences depended on whether “short” or “long” CATA lists were used. Additionally, here was some evidence that CATA questions with “long” lists of synonym or antonym terms may cause a “dilution” effect of the responses. This fits expectations of idiosyncrasy in consumer perception/expression of sensory stimuli, but may be associated with reduced discriminatory ability of the CATA question. How to best balance these opposing considerations is deserving of further investigation.     

Alternating temporal dominance of sensations and liking scales during the intake of a full portion of an oral nutritional supplement

Measurement of liking with consumers is often performed on a single sip or mouthful of the product and results in a single liking score that does not necessarily reflect the liking over consumption of a whole product. A dynamic approach could provide this type of information. Thus, obtaining reasons why the liking score is changing over consumption could help to gain insights for product improvement. Recently, Thomas, Visalli, Cordelle, and Schlich (2015) suggested collecting with the same consumers liking scores dynamically and Temporal Dominance of Sensations (TDS) during mono-intakes of flavored cheeses, in two independent sessions. This new type of sensory data has been analysed at individual level to identify “temporal drivers of liking” for each product.The present paper further develops this method consisting of collecting TDS and dynamic liking data in the same session and during the consumption of the full portion of a product. The products used to experiment this new method were two commercial oral nutritional supplements (ONS) assessed by 65 consumers over two lab sessions separated by one week.The protocol consisted of a TDS evaluation of 5 flavor, 2 texture and 3 taste sensations during each sip, immediately followed by a liking scale. This protocol was repeated over sips. This method, named “Alternated Temporal Drivers of Liking” (A-TDL), required that consumers record liking changes and do TDS over sips during food consumption. Results showed that one of the two ONS was more liked than the other and consumed in a larger volume resulting in a higher energy intake. In contrast, the other product resulted in a stronger thirst and presented more negative temporal drivers of liking (dry, metallic, filming) over the consecutive sips.     

The impact of food and beverage characteristics on expectations of satiation,satiety and thirst

The expected impact of a food or drink on appetite can influence decisions around eating and the actual experience of satiation and satiety post-consumption. This study explored the relationship between a product’s anticipated sensory characteristics and its expected impact on feelings of hunger, fullness and thirst. Female participants (n = 118) evaluated 40 widely available food and beverage products (varying in physical characteristics, packaging, serving size and total energy content) for anticipated sensory characteristics, pleasantness and familiarity, alongside expected impact on immediate fullness, hunger after one hour and thirst both immediately and after one hour. Correlations revealed that the most caloric products and those anticipated to be creamier were expected to be more filling and hunger suppressing than the products with lower energy content and expected to be less creamy. Total energy was the best predictor of expected satiation and satiety. We observed that beverage products were expected to be similarly satiating as food products (including liquid, solid and semi-solids) with a similar total energy content and expected creaminess. On the other hand, products expected to be less salty and thick were expected to be most thirst-quenching, and these tended to be beverage products, regardless of their total energy content. These results are in line with emerging evidence suggesting that certain sensory cues associated with nutrients can be used to estimate the satiating power of other foods, including beverages. Beverages are expected to be uniquely thirst-quenching, but are not always expected to have a low satiety-value.     

How sweetness intensity and thickness of an oral nutritional supplement affects intake and satiety

Oral nutritional supplements (ONS) can be used to improve the nutritional status of malnourished patients, but their effectiveness depends on adequate intake. This is not always achieved due to the disliked flavour and satiating properties of ONS. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of sweetness intensity and thickness on intake and sensory sequential profile of an ONS. It was hypothesized that lower sweetness intensity and thickness would decrease oro-sensory stimulation and satiety, improve the sensory profile, and thus, improve ONS intake.The effect of sweetness intensity and thickness on intake and satiety was investigated using a 2 × 2 design (low-high-sweetness and thin/thick). Participants (n = 36) consumed each ONS to satiation. Each ONS was identical in macronutrient and calorie content. Appetite and thirst were measured throughout the morning of the test. Additionally, an expert sensory panel (n = 11), performed a sensory sequential profile of each ONS.No effect of sweetness intensity was found. Results showed that 33% more of the thin, compared to thick, ONS was consumed, without affecting satiety. Furthermore, mouth-drying first increased, up to a consumption volume of 300 ml, and then decreased, independent of sweetness intensity and thickness.In conclusion, this study showed that an ONS with lower thickness increased intake in healthy adults, without affecting satiety. This implies that, for ONS, attention should not be solely focused on nutritional content. Instead, a sensory-nutrition approach is recommended that balances nutritional content with oro-sensory cues. This proof of concept should be further investigated with malnourished older adults.     

TURF analysis for CATA data using R package ‘turfR’

CATA (Check All That Apply) questions are one of the most popular approaches used widely in sensory and consumer fields. This paper proposes to apply the TURF (Total Unduplicated Reach and Frequency) technique to summarize and analyze CATA data. Numerical examples from a women’s multi-vitamin/mineral gummy survey conducted online recently in the US are provided to show the TURF analysis for CATA data. The R package ‘turfR’ was used in the analysis of the CATA data. An R code (‘turfcata’) was developed and is provided for the analysis using the R package ‘turfR’.     

What does it mean to check-all-that-apply? Four case studies with beverages

The use of check-all-that-apply (CATA) questions in product-focused consumer research on foods and beverages is now common, and the method is known to provide valid sensory product characterisations. Extensive methodological research has been conducted and has supported uptake, but understanding of how consumers complete CATA questions is incomplete, particularly with regard to their decision to select or not a term to describe the sensory properties of products. The present research was situated within this gap, and using open-ended questions participants (n = 636) were asked to describe how they perceived a pair of samples with regard to an attribute and link this to CATA term selection. The results, obtained for taste (‘sweet’ and ‘sour/acidic’) and flavour (‘cinnamon’ and ‘smoky’) confirmed consumers’ ability to accurately perform sensory characterisation tasks. In particular, it was found that: i) the great majority of the consumers accurately used the CATA terms for describing the sensory characteristics they perceived in a sample, ii) when a term was not selected for describing samples, the majority of the consumers indicated that the corresponding sensory attribute was not perceived, iii) when a term was selected for describing only one of the samples in a pair, consumers reported to have perceived a difference in attribute intensity between the samples. Thus, CATA questions remain a desirable option for sensory product characterisation tasks with consumers, but should be selected with thought as they may not always be able to achieve desired sample discrimination due to the binary nature of the responses.     

Older US adults like sweetened colas,but not other chemesthetic beverages

Many older adults suffer from difficulty swallowing thin beverages like water or coffee. To improve swallowing safety, beverages are typically thickened. This creates a new problem: the thickened beverages can be disgusting. New research suggests chemesthesis, particularly spiciness, carbonation, or intense sourness, could improve swallowing without the need for thickeners. Yet, whether such beverages would be liked by older adults is unknown. We thus conducted this experiment to establish older adults' sensory perception and liking/disliking of commercially available chemesthetic beverages. We recruited participants to rate sweetness, sourness, fizziness, stinging, and liking/disliking of unsweetened carbonated waters (1 plain, 5 flavored), sour orange juice, spicy ginger beer, and colas (sugar or aspartame-sweetened). Initial tests (N = 30 older adults) indicated sour orange juice, spicy ginger beer, and two of the flavored waters were not well-liked, so other beverages were selected for a second test (N = 94, 30 younger adults, 64 older adults). Sweetened, carbonated colas were the best-liked of the beverages. The unsweetened, flavored carbonated waters were in general not liked. Regarding comparisons of sensory ratings between older and younger adults, only sweetness differed between age groups. In particular, intensity ratings for the chemesthetic aspects of the beverages (stinging/burning/spiciness, fizziness) and the sour taste did not differ by age. As the chemesthetic properties are the most likely reason the beverages could aid in swallowing safety, observing no suppression of these sensations in older adults is encouraging for the potential of these products as a treatment option.     

Sensory properties of thickened tomato soup enhanced with different sources of protein (whey,soy, hemp,and pea)

Thickened soup formulations were created with different proteins (hemp, soy, pea, and whey) to improve protein and fluid intake. The formulations consisted of a control soup, and soups with 6% whey protein, 6% hemp protein, 6% pea protein, and 6% soy protein by volume. The suitability of the samples for those living with dysphagia was evaluated using the international dysphagia diet standardization initiative (IDDSI) spoon tilt test and a sensory trial (51 older adults and 51 younger adults). The sensory trial used nine-point hedonic scales and check-all-that-apply to evaluate the different formulations. The sample with the whey addition was not significantly different than the control in terms of liking of flavor and texture, but it decreased the participants' overall liking. The hemp, pea, and soy decreased overall liking as well as liking of flavor and texture. They were associated with off-flavors, aftertaste, and astringency. The responses from the older and younger adults were compared and significant differences were found in their liking of the texture, with the older adults finding the formulations' texture significantly more acceptable. Overall, the study identified that hemp, pea, and soy did not create acceptable thickened soup formulations and the hemp and pea formulations did not achieve a consistency level that is acceptable for those living with dysphagia.     

The ability of 10–11-year-old children to identify basic tastes and their liking towards unfamiliar foods

The involvement of children in sensory evaluation and consumer research continues to increase and has become crucial in the food industry, as children sensory perceptions differ from adults. Research on basic taste sensitivity in children provides contradictory results, with most of the studies not considering the familiarity aspect of the food samples. Familiarity can lead children to memories of the food which are able to influence their taste perception and liking. This study aims to investigate the ability of 10 to 11-year old children in identifying sweetness, saltiness, sourness, and bitterness in unfamiliar food samples. The taste identification data was collected from 98 children using 19 food samples representing the four basic tastes of sweet, sour, salty, and bitter. For each food sample, the children evaluated their familiarity, the basic taste(s) they perceived using the check-all-that-apply (CATA) method and scored their liking. Their basic taste identification ability was investigated by comparing their results to trained panellists as a reference. The food samples were unfamiliar to most of the children (never tasted by 85% of the children on average). Correspondence Analysis (CA) showed that children were able to identify the basic tastes of sweet, sour, salty, and bitter in the unfamiliar foods, with a high congruency to the trained panellists. However, children’s identification ability was lower when combinations of dominant basic tastes occurred. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) demonstrated a positive correlation between the presence of sweet taste and the children’s liking while sour and bitter tastes showed the opposite.     

The silver sensory experience – A review of senior consumers’ food perception,liking and intake

It is commonly assumed that sensory impairments occurring with age negatively affect older people’s intake of foods in terms of both quality and quantity. This review discusses evidence published on the effects of age on sensory perception and the consequences for independently living seniors’ perception, liking and intake of food products. Because of anatomical changes in all the senses involved in human food perception, on average seniors perceive a lower flavour intensity than younger adults, are less sensitive to changes in the flavour profile of foods, and show a decreased ability to discriminate between different intensity levels of flavour and/or taste attributes. However, despite these differences in their sensory perception of foods, young adults and seniors seem to differ less in their initial hedonic appraisal of food products. Nonetheless, more research is needed to determine whether multisensory enrichment of foods across different modalities may lead to increased food liking in seniors both with and without olfactory impairment. Although limited, the current evidence suggests that sensory performance may be positively associated with BMI or body weight in specific senior populations. In addition, seniors fail to show a decreased appreciation of an eaten food, thereby increasing the risk of a monotonous diet. Taken together, these findings highlight the need for appropriate interventions and/or foods to improve and maintain adequate quantity and quality of food intake among independently living seniors, and especially those with low sensory performance. Such interventions should be holistic rather than focused on one modality and may also incorporate hedonic modulators such as past experiences, affective factors and external cues, e.g. brand names, labels or food packaging. In interventions and product development, segmentation of the senior consumer market is strongly advised to identify more homogeneous subgroups in order to deal with the large heterogeneity between independently living seniors. It is concluded that one size of the silver food experience will most likely not fit all senior consumers!     

Potential sources of mouth drying in beverages fortified with dairy proteins: A comparison of casein- and whey-rich ingredients

Oral nutritional supplement drinks (ONS) are beverages high in dairy proteins that are prescribed to individuals at risk of malnutrition. Consumption of ONS is poor in elderly care facilities, with patients commenting that the sensory attributes of these drinks reduce their enjoyment and willingness to consume. Mouth drying is an attribute of ONS found to build with repeated consumption, which may further limit liking of these products. This study investigated the sources of drying sensations by sequential profiling, with a trained sensory panel rating a range of model milk systems and ONS over repeated sips and during after-effects. Sequential profiling found that fortification of milk with both caseinate and whey protein concentrate significantly increased the perception of mouth drying over repeated consumption, increasing by between 35 and 85% over consumption of 40 mL. Enrichment of ONS with either whey protein concentrate or milk protein concentrate to a total protein content of 8.7% (wt/wt) resulted in whey and casein levels of 4.3:4.4% and 1.7:7.0% respectively. The product higher in whey protein was substantially more mouth drying, implying that whey proteins may be the most important contributor to mouth drying in ONS. However, efforts to mask mouth drying of protein-fortified milk by increasing sweetness or fat level were unsuccessful at the levels tested. Increasing the viscosity of protein-fortified milk led to a small but significant reduction in mouth drying. However, this approach was not successful when tested within complete ONS. Further analysis is required into the mechanism of protein-derived mouth drying to mask negative sensations and improve the enjoyment and consumption of protein-rich ONS.