石英β剂量的蒙特卡罗模拟

用蒙特卡罗方法对TL或OSL测定年代中用β源进行照射时石英样品的吸收剂量进行模拟,研究石英薄片样品厚度和石英单颗粒大小对吸收剂量的影响。模拟程序用EGSnrc/DOSRZnrc,圆柱形薄片样品直径0.97cm,厚度10–500μm,单颗粒大小60–300μm。结果表明,吸收剂量与薄片样品的厚度有关,相对剂量的最大差异达10%;石英单颗粒中相对剂量随颗粒变小而增大,最大差异达19%。这些因素在测定年代过程中需加以考虑。     

A D-D neutron generator using a titanium drive-in target

A D-D neutron generator was developed with an intensity of 10⁸ n/s. A helicon plasma ion source was used to produce a large current deuteron beam, and neutrons were generated by irradiating the deuteron beam on a titanium drive-in target made of commercial pure titanium. The neutron generator was test-run for several hundred hours, and the performances were investigated. The available range of the deuteron beam current was 0.8-8 mA and the beam could be accelerated up to 97.5 keV. The maximum neutron generation rate in the test-runs was 1.9 × 10⁸ n/s, which was achieved by irradiating a 7.6 mA deuteron beam at 94.0 keV on a 0.5 mm-thick target. The operation of the neutron generator was fairly stable, such that the neutron generation rate was not altered by high voltage breakdowns during the test-runs. Neutron generation efficiency was rated as low as 10% when compared to an ideal case of irradiating a 100% monatomic deuteron beam on a perfect TiD₂ target. Factors causing the low efficiency were suggested and discussed.     

Application of the Monte Carlo method to the analysis of measurement geometries for the calibration of a HP Ge detector in an environmental radioactivity laboratory

A gamma spectrometer including an HP Ge detector is commonly used for environmental radioactivity measurements. The efficiency of the detector should be calibrated for each geometry considered. Simulation of the calibration procedure with a validated computer program is an important auxiliary tool for environmental radioactivity laboratories. The MCNP code based on the Monte Carlo method has been applied to simulate the detection process in order to obtain spectrum peaks and determine the efficiency curve for each modelled geometry. The source used for measurements was a calibration mixed radionuclide gamma reference solution, covering a wide energy range (50-2000 keV). Two measurement geometries - Marinelli beaker and Petri boxes - as well as different materials - water, charcoal, sand - containing the source have been considered. Results obtained from the Monte Carlo model have been compared with experimental measurements in the laboratory in order to validate the model.     

A successful experimental observation of double-photon Compton scattering of γ rays using a single γ detector

The phenomenon of double-photon Compton scattering has been successfully observed using a single γ detector, a technique avoiding the use of the complicated slow-fast coincidence set-up used till now for observing this higher-order process. Here doubly differential collision cross-sections integrated over the directions of one of the two final photons, the direction of other one being kept fixed, are measured experimentally for 0.662 MeV incident γ photons. The energy spectra of the detected photons are observed as a long tail to the single-photon Compton line on the lower side of the full energy peak in the recorded scattered energy spectrum. The present results are in agreement with theory of this process.     

Monte Carlo simulation study of the positron contribution to displacements per atom production in YBCO superconductors

The contribution from positrons to the displacements per atom (dpa) distribution induced by the gamma irradiation on YBCO superconducting slabs is presented. The procedure implemented previously by the authors was adapted to take into account the contribution from positrons to dpa induced by the gamma radiation. The results show that, when positrons are considered in the atom displacement process, the total dpa almost doubles at 10 MeV of incident gamma radiation. At that energy positrons contribute 7% more to the total dpa than electrons, although electrons maintain having the highest contribution up to about 8 MeV.     

The Monte Carlo code CEARCPG for coincidence prompt gamma-ray neutron activation analysis

Prompt gamma-ray neutron activation analysis (PGNAA) is widely used to determine the elemental composition of bulk samples. The detection sensitivities of PGNAA are often restricted by the inherent poor signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). There are many sources of noise (background) including the natural background, neutron activation of the detector, gamma-rays associated with the neutron source and prompt gamma-rays from the structural materials of the analyzer. Results of the prompt gamma-ray coincidence technique show that it could greatly improve the SNR by removing almost all of the background interferences. The first specific Monte Carlo code (CEARCPG) for coincidence PGNAA has been developed at the Center for Engineering Application of Radioisotopes (CEAR) to explore the capabilities of this technique. Benchmark bulk sample experiments have been performed with coal, sulfur, and mercury samples and indicate that the code is accurate and will be very useful in the design of coincidence PGNAA devices.     

Monte Carlo simulation of the Greek Research Reactor neutron irradiation facilities

A Monte Carlo simulation of the Greek Research Reactor was carried out using MCNP-4C2 code and continuous energy cross-section data from ENDF/B-VI library. A detailed model of the reactor core was employed including standard and control fuel assemblies, reflectors and irradiation devices. The model predicted neutron flux distributions within the core in good agreement with calculations performed using the deterministic code CITATION and measurements using activation foils. The model is used for the prediction of the neutron field characteristics at the reactor irradiation devices and enables the design and evaluation of experiments involving material irradiations.     

Detailed spatial measurements and Monte Carlo analysis of the transportation phenomena of thermal and epithermal neutrons from the 12-GeV proton transport line to an access maze

In order to investigate the neutron transportation from a beam-line tunnel to an access maze at a 12-GeV proton accelerator, we measured the spatial distribution of thermal and epithermal neutrons by using the Au activation method in detail. Gold foils were placed at about 70 positions in the maze in the case of the insertion (or extraction) of a copper target of 1 mm thickness into (or from) the beam axis in front of the maze. After the end of accelerator operation, relative activities of the Au foils were simultaneously measured by using an imaging plate technique and the radioactivity of one reference foil was also measured with a HPGe detector to convert to the absolute activities of all foils.It was found that the neutrons reach to the depth of the maze in the case of the insertion of the copper target. This result reflects higher proportion of high-energy particles from the copper target to that from other beam loss points and high-energy particles become the successive source of low-energy neutrons. Furthermore, it was found that several circumstances such as door walls and electric wire cables obviously affect the absorption effect of thermal neutrons. The reaction rates obtained in this study were also used for the benchmark of the Monte Carlo simulation code, MARS15 (version of February 2008). The results of the MARS15 calculations precisely reproduced experimental results and significant effects of the electric wire cables and door walls.     

Unbiased Monte Carlo simulation of the Compton profile

Recent comparisons between analytical (deterministic) computations using the code SHAPE, and Monte Carlo (MC) simulations of Compton scattering using different codes show discrepancies in the shape of the Compton peak (the so-called Compton profile), specially for medium-low energy X-ray excitation. Considering the analytical computations as a reference model, the standard approach adopted for generating the Compton profile in different MC codes (EGSnrc, MCNP, MCSHAPE) has been studied comparatively in order to discover a reason for the difference. Apparently there is a bias in the profile generation which is common to all the codes and is related to the assumption of completely populated atomic orbitals contributing to the scattering. Such an assumption does not agree with the equivalence condition between the integrated Compton profile in the Impulse Approximation (IA) and the Waller-Hartree (WH) scattering function.In this article, we report the comparisons mentioned above for a paradigmatic case and propose an unbiased MC algorithm for the simulation of the Compton scattering.     

Modeling of radiation-induced bystander effect using Monte Carlo methods

Experiments showed that the radiation-induced bystander effect exists in cells, or tissues, or even biological organisms when irradiated with energetic ions or X-rays. In this paper, a Monte Carlo model is developed to study the mechanisms of bystander effect under the cells sparsely populated conditions. This model, based on our previous experiment which made the cells sparsely located in a round dish, focuses mainly on the spatial characteristics. The simulation results successfully reach the agreement with the experimental data. Moreover, other bystander effect experiment is also computed by this model and finally the model succeeds in predicting the results. The comparison of simulations with the experimental results indicates the feasibility of the model and the validity of some vital mechanisms assumed.     

Modelling swift heavy ion irradiation in iron

Swift heavy ions moving in metals lose most of their energy to inelastic scattering of electrons. The energy deposited in the electronic system is transferred into the atomic system via electron-ion interactions and can lead to melting and creation of new damage and also annealing of pre-existing atomic defects. Using a combination of molecular dynamics and a consistent treatment of electron energy transfer and transport we have modelled experiments performed in Fe to investigate the annealing effect and damage creation under electronic excitations. We observe both annealing and new damage creation at low and high electronic stopping, respectively. Rapid separation of interstitial atoms and vacant lattice sites is seen due to efficient transport via replacement collision sequences. Our results suggest that the role of electronic excitation can be significant in modeling of the behaviour of metals under swift heavy ion irradiation and attempts to modify metals via ion implantation.     

Design of a fuel element for a lead-cooled fast reactor

The options of a lead-cooled fast reactor (LFR) of the fourth generation (GEN-IV) reactor with the electric power of 600 MW are investigated in the ELSY Project. The fuel selection, design and optimization are important steps of the project. Three types of fuel are considered as candidates: highly enriched Pu-U mixed oxide (MOX) fuel for the first core, the MOX containing between 2.5% and 5.0% of the minor actinides (MA) for next core and Pu-U-MA nitride fuel as an advanced option. Reference fuel rods with claddings made of T91 ferrite-martensitic steel and two alternative fuel assembly designs (one uses a closed hexagonal wrapper and the other is an open square variant without wrapper) have been assessed. This study focuses on the core variant with the closed hexagonal fuel assemblies. Based on the neutronic parameters provided by Monte-Carlo modeling with MCNP5 and ALEPH codes, simulations have been carried out to assess the long-term thermal-mechanical behaviour of the hottest fuel rods. A modified version of the fuel performance code FEMAXI-SCK-1, adapted for fast neutron spectrum, new fuels, cladding materials and coolant, was utilized for these calculations. The obtained results show that the fuel rods can withstand more than four effective full power years under the normal operation conditions without pellet-cladding mechanical interaction (PCMI). In a variant with solid fuel pellets, a mild PCMI can appear during the fifth year, however, it remains at an acceptable level up to the end of operation when the peak fuel pellet burnup ∼80 MW d kg⁻¹ of heavy metal (HM) and the maximum clad damage of about 82 displacements per atom (dpa) are reached. Annular pellets permit to delay PCMI for about 1 year. Based on the results of this simulation, further steps are envisioned for the optimization of the fuel rod design, aiming at achieving the fuel burnup of 100 MW d kg⁻¹ of HM.     

Evaluation of melting point of UO2 by molecular dynamics simulation

The melting point of UO₂ has been evaluated by molecular dynamics simulation (MD) in terms of interatomic potential, pressure and Schottky defect concentration. The Born-Mayer-Huggins potentials with or without a Morse potential were explored in the present study. Two-phase simulation whose supercell at the initial state consisted of solid and liquid phases gave the melting point comparable to the experimental data using the potential proposed by Yakub. The heat of fusion was determined by the difference in enthalpy at the melting point. In addition, MD calculations showed that the melting point increased with pressure applied to the system. Thus, the Clausius-Clapeyron equation was verified. Furthermore, MD calculations clarified that an addition of Schottky defects, which generated the local disorder in the UO₂ crystal, lowered the melting point.     

Ion beam analysis of materials in the PBMR reactor

South Africa is developing a new type of high temperature nuclear reactor, the so-called pebble bed modular reactor (PBMR). The planned reactor outlet temperature of this gas-cooled reactor is approximately 900 °C. This high temperature places some severe restrictions on materials, which can be used. The name of the reactor is derived from the form of the fuel elements, which are in the form of pebbles, each with a diameter of 60 mm. Each pebble is composed of several thousands of coated fuel particles. The coated particle consists of a nucleus of UO₂ surrounded by several layers of different carbons and SiC. The diameter of the fuel particles is 0.92 mm. A brief review will be given of the advantages of this nuclear reactor, of the materials in the fuel elements and their analysis using ion beam techniques.     

Influence of oxide layer morphology on hydrogen concentration in tin and niobium containing zirconium alloys after high temperature steam oxidation

The influence of the oxide layer morphology on the hydrogen uptake during steam oxidation of (Zr,Sn) and Zr-Nb nuclear fuel rod cladding alloys was investigated in isothermal separate-effect tests and large-scale fuel rod bundle simulation experiments. From both it can be concluded that the concentration of hydrogen in the remaining metal strongly depends on the existence of tangential cracks in the oxide layers formed by the tetragonal - monoclinic phase transition in the oxide, known as breakaway effect. In these cracks hydrogen is strongly enriched. It results in very local high hydrogen partial pressure at the oxide/metal interface and in an increase of the hydrogen concentration in the metal at local regions where such cracks in the oxide layer exist. Due to this effect the hydrogen uptake of the remaining zirconium alloy does not depend monotonically on temperature. Differences between (Zr,Sn) and Zr-Nb alloys are caused by differences in the hydrogen production due to different oxidation kinetics and in the crack forming phase transformation in the oxides as well as in the mechanical stability of the oxides.     

Influence of some variable parameters on bremsstrahlung dosimetric characteristic for electron linac

The paper presents some important problems related to the practical aspect of employing the bremsstrahlung radiation generated by linear accelerators used in the irradiation technological processes, namely:

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The optimization of the electron-bremsstrahlung conversion output by optimizing the target thickness and

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the study on the influence of some variable parameters of the accelerator (i.e. the beam current, the magnetron frequency and the injection voltage) on the dosimeter characteristics of the bremsstrahlung radiation.

The measurements have been performed with the 3.5 and 10 MeV linear electron accelerators in NILPRP-Electron Accelerator Laboratory.     

Temperature and pressure conditions for the appropriate performance of charge and mass resolutions in balloon-borne CR-39 track detector for the heavy cosmic rays

We experimentally determined the suitable conditions of temperature and air pressure for measuring charge and mass compositions of heavy cosmic rays using CR-39 track detectors during long-duration, high-altitude balloon flights. The experiments were carried out utilizing Fe ion beams from Heavy Ion Medical Accelerator (HIMAC). Changes in the track registration sensitivity with temperature were studied at temperatures between 213 and 293 K. The charge and mass shifts around Fe ions are possibly 0.11 cu (charge unit) and 0.47 amu (atomic mass unit) at the temperature deviation between 227 and 243 K at balloon altitude. Decrease in track registration sensitivity as air pressure decreases has been observed between 13 Pa and 27 kPa. The charge and mass shifts around Fe ions are inferred to be 0.02 cu and 0.09 amu, respectively, when pressure varies between 20 and 27 kPa. During balloon flight, air pressure drops below this; therefore, care must be taken to keep the temperature and air pressure of CR-39 detectors within acceptable limits.     

PHOTON - An optical Monte Carlo code for simulating scintillation detector responses

A Monte Carlo code, PHOTON, has been developed to simulate optical photon transport in scintillation detectors. The code supports arbitrarily complex geometry models, flexible models for material and surface properties specification, detailed treatment of complex refractive index materials, thin-film surface coatings and interactive simulation with graphical display. This paper concentrates on the photon transport simulation and a simple benchmarking study, comparing the experimental and calculated light yields from a rectangular plastic scintillator block.     

The matrix method for radiological characterization of radioactive waste

Beam losses are responsible for material activation in some of the components of particle accelerators. The activation is caused by several nuclear processes and varies with the irradiation history and the characteristics of the material (namely chemical composition and size). Once at the end of their operational lifetime, these materials require radiological characterization.The radionuclide inventory depends on the particle spectrum, the irradiation history and the chemical composition of the material. As long as these factors are known and the material cross-sections are available, the induced radioactivity can be calculated analytically. However, these factors vary widely among different items of waste and sometimes they are only partially known.The European Laboratory for Particle Physics (CERN, Geneva) has been operating accelerators for high-energy physics for 50 years. Different methods for the evaluation of the radionuclide inventory are currently under investigation at CERN, including the so-called “matrix method”. This paper provides a mathematical formulation of the matrix method highlighting its advantages and limits of validity.     

Displacement per atom calculation in YBCO superconductors through Monte Carlo simulation

The results of the calculations of the displacements per atom distribution induced by the gamma irradiation up to 15 MeV on YBa₂Cu₃O_7−x superconducting slabs are presented. Firstly, a calculation procedure for the displacement cross sections and the displacement per atom distributions was applied using the Monte Carlo simulation through the MCNPX code system. Then, based on this algorithm, the displacement per atom in-depth distributions were calculated starting from the energy flux distributions obtained from the simulation process, taking into account the contribution from each atom, obtaining a predominance of the Cu-O₂ planar sites over yttrium and barium atoms and more specifically the oxygen atoms predominate at low energies and the copper atoms at higher energies. Finally, the linear correlation observed between the displacement per atom distributions and energy deposition profiles at each incident energy was analyzed.