Heat transfer and microstructure during the early stages of metal solidification

Transient heat transfer in the early stages of solidification of an alloy on a water-cooled chill and the consequent evolution of microstructure, quantified in terms of secondary dendrite arm spacing (SDAS), have been studied. Based on dip tests of the chill, instrumented with thermocouples, into Al-Si alloys, the influence of process variables such as mold surface roughness, mold material, metal superheat, alloy composition, and lubricant on heat transfer and cast structure has been determined. The heat flux between the solidifying metal and substrate, computed from measurements of transient temperature in the chill by the inverse heat-transfer technique, ranged from low values of 0.3 to 0.4 MW/m² to peak values of 0.95 to 2.0 MW/m². A onedimensional, implicit, finite-difference model was applied to compute heat-transfer coefficients, which ranged from 0.45 to 4.0 kW/m² °C, and local cooling rates of 10 °C/s to 100 °C/s near the chill surface, as well as growth of the solidifying shell. Near the chill surface, the SDAS varied from 12 to 22 (μm while at 20 mm from the chill, values of up to 80/smm were measured. Although the SDAS depended on the cooling rate and local solidification time, it was also found to be a direct function of the heat-transfer coefficient at distances very near to the casting/chill interface. A three-stage empirical heat-flux model based on the thermophysical properties of the mold and casting has been proposed for the simulation of the mold/casting boundary condition during solidification. The applicability of the various models proposed in the literature relating the SDAS to heat-transfer parameters has been evaluated and the extension of these models to continuous casting processes pursued.     

High-speed temperature measurements during rapid solidification of iron-silicon ribbons,produced by planar flow casting

In order to investigate the melt undercooling and the non-equilibrium solidification of crystalline Fe 5 wt.% Si melt spun ribbons, produced by planar flow casting (PFC), high speed temperature measurements and appropriate process simulations have been performed. Using a rotating fibre optical system with a fast response double pyrometer, the temperature radiation of the solidifying ribbon during the casting process has been recorded with a measuring frequency of 50 kHz. The obtained cooling curves have been interpreted by computer simulations. It is shown that with increasing wheel temperature the overall cooling becomes more efficient. This is caused by an improved wetting behaviour of the melt-wheel system and an increase in the heat transfer coefficient at the interface of the solidifying ribbon and the wheel from 6 · 10⁴ to about 2 · 10⁵ W/(m²K). The solidification of 100 to 200 μm thick ribbons takes place in a time interval of 2 to 5 ms. The average growth rate varies between 10 and 60 mm/s. The high cooling rate results in a fine dendritic solidification morphology with diminishing microsegregations.     

Determination of the heat-transfer coefficient between the AK7ch (A356) alloy casting and no-bake mold

The heat-transfer coefficient h between a cylindrical cast made of AK7ch (A356) aluminum alloy and a no-bake mold based on a furan binder is determined via minimizing the error function, which reflects the difference between the experimental and calculated temperatures in the mold during pouring, solidification, and cooling. The heat-transfer coefficient is h _L = 900 W/(m² K) above the liquidus temperature (617°C) and h _S = 600 W/(m² K) below the alloy solidus temperature (556°C). The variation in the heat-transfer coefficient in ranges h _L = 900–1200 W/(m² K) (above the alloy liquidus temperature) and h _S = 500–900 W/(m² K) (below the solidus temperature) barely affects the error function, which remains at ~22°C. It is shown that it is admissible to use a simplified approach when constant h = 500 W/(m² K) is specified, which leads to an error of 23.8°C. By the example of cylindrical casting, it is experimentally confirmed that the heat-transfer coefficient varies over the casting height according to the difference in the metallostatic pressure, which affects the casting solid skin during its solidification; this leads to a closer contact of metal and mold at the casting bottom.     

Estimating the Effective Metal-Mould Interfacial Heat Transfer Coefficient via Experimental-Simulated Cooling Curve Convergence

The design of improved casting systems requires accurate modeling of metal cooling processes. This can only be accomplished after determining the interfacial heat transfer coefficient (IHTC) between a solidifying casting and its mould. In the current work, a simple and robust inverse heat conduction technique was applied for the estimation of the effective IHTC between an aluminum alloy casting and a steel permanent mould during solidification. The solidification of the alloy at varying mould preheating temperatures was monitored using a thermocouple, and the experimental cooling curves were compared with curves simulated by casting solidification modeling software. The IHTC value applied to the software was varied until its output converged with the experimental data, leading to an estimation of 6000 W/m²K for this system. This technique is useful as a preliminary tool in materials modeling, and it will promote the development of improved casting processes without the need for excessive experimentation.     

Effect of Retained Austenite on the Fracture Toughness of Quenching and Partitioning (Q&P)-Treated Sheet Steels

Fracture toughness K _IC was measured by double edge-notched tension (DENT) specimens with fatigue precracks on quenching and partitioning (Q&P)-treated high-strength (ultimate tensile strength [UTS] superior to 1200 MPa) sheet steels consisting of 4 to 10 vol pct of retained austenite. Crack extension force, G _IC, evaluated from the measured K _IC, is used to analyze the role of retained austenite in different fracture behavior. Meanwhile, G _IC is deduced by a constructed model based on energy absorption by martensite transformation (MT) behavior of retained austenite in Q&P-treated steels. The tendency of the change of two results is in good agreement. The Q&P-treated steel, quenched at 573 K (300 °C), then partitioned at 573 K (300 °C), holding for 60 seconds, has a fracture toughness of 74.1 MPa·m^1/2, which is 32 pct higher than quenching and tempering steel (55.9 MPa·m^1/2), and 16 pct higher than quenching and austempering (QAT) steel (63.8 MPa·m^1/2). MT is found to occur preferentially at the tips of extension cracks on less stable retained austenite, which further improves the toughness of Q&P steels; on the contrary, the MT that occurs at more stable retained austenite has a detrimental effect on toughness.     

Mathematical Simulation of Process Parameters in the case of Rapid Solidification of Steel

Rapid solidification of steel was investigated experimentally under laboratory conditions by immersion of cold copper rods in steel baths. For a better understanding of the process parameters during rapid solidification, an explicit finite difference model was employed. In the calculation, a coefficient of heat transfer between a frozen steel shell and solid copper of α = 40 [KW/m²·K] is assumed in good agreement with experimental data derived from temperature measurements. The solidification parameters such as local time of solidification (LST), local time of the superheat reduction (LShRT), local solidification and cooling rates (LSR, LCR) and local heat flux density of solidification and superheat reduction (LSHFD, LShRHFD) can be calculated using the developed model, in dependence on the processing conditions. This influence of processing parameters, such as steel bath superheat, steel bath material, immersed body material, initial temperature of immersed body and immersed body geometry, were the subject of intensive investigations.     

Measurement and modeling of heat transfer across interfacial mold flux layers

Surface quality problems in continuous cast steel are greatly affected by heat transfer across the interfacial layers in the gap between the solidifying steel shell and the mold. An experimental apparatus has been constructed to measure temperatures in the steel, mold flux layers, and copper under conditions approximating those in continuous casting. The flux solidified in multiple layers similar to those observed from continuous casting molds and contained many gas bubbles. Flux conductivities average about 1.0 W/m·K and appear to evolve with time. Contact resistances at both interfaces are significant and average about 0.0015 m²·K/W. Flux crystallization appears to be the only significant effect of flux composition. The one glassy flux tested had much greater thermal conductivities, presumably due to radiation transport. Temperature and gap thickness had a negligible effect on the properties. These properties depend on the model used to extract them. They are being implemented into a mathematical model to simulate heat transfer in the mold, interface, and solidifying shell of a continuous slab-casting machine.     

Determination of interface heat transfer coefficient between aluminum casting and graphite mold

To produce castings of titanium, nickel, copper, aluminum, and zinc alloys, graphite molds can be used, which makes it possible to provide a high cooling rate. No die coating and lubricant are required in this case. Computer simulation of casting into graphite molds requires knowledge of the thermal properties of the poured alloy and graphite. In addition, in order to attain adequate simulation results, a series of boundary conditions such as heat transfer coefficients should be determined. The most important ones are the interface heat transfer coefficient between the casting and the mold, the heat transfer coefficient between the mold parts, and the interface heat transfer coefficient into the environment. In this study, the interface heat transfer coefficient h between the cylindrical aluminum (99.99%) casting and the mold made of block graphite of the GMZ (low ash graphite) grade was determined. The mold was produced by milling using a CNC milling machine. The interface heat transfer coefficient was found by minimizing the error function reflecting the difference between the experimental and simulated temperatures in a mold and in a casting during pouring, solidification, and cooling of the casting. The dependences of the interface heat transfer coefficient between aluminum and graphite on the casting surface temperature and time passed from the beginning of pouring are obtained. It is established that, at temperatures of the metal surface contacting with a mold of 1000, 660, 619, and 190°C, the h is 1100, 4700, 700, and 100 W/(m² K), respectively; i.e., when cooling the melt from 1000°C (pouring temperature) to 660°C (aluminum melting point), the h rises from 1100 to 4700 W/(m² K), and after forming the metal solid skin on the mold surface and decreasing its temperature, the h decreases. In our opinion, a decrease in the interface heat transfer coefficient at casting surface temperatures lower than 660°C is associated with the air gap formation between the surfaces of the mold and the casting because of the linear shrinkage of the latter. The heat transfer coefficient between mold parts (graphite–graphite) is constant, being 1000 W/(m² K). The heat transfer coefficient of graphite into air is 12 W/(m² K) at a mold surface temperature up to 600°C.     

Selection of Initial Mold–Metal Interface Heat Transfer Coefficient Values in Casting Simulations—a Sensitivity Analysis

Mold–metal interface heat transfer coefficient values need to be determined precisely to accurately predict thermal histories at different locations in automotive castings. Thermomechanical simulations were carried out for Al-Si alloy casting processes using a commercial code. The cooling curve results were validated with experimental data from the literature for a cylindrical-shaped casting. Our analysis indicates that the interface heat transfer coefficient (IHTC) initial value choice between chill–metal and the sand mold–metal interfaces has a marked effect on the cooling curves. In addition, after choosing an IHTC initial value, the solidification rates of the alloy near the chill–metal interfaces varied during subsequent cooling when the gap began to form. However, the gap formation, which results in an IHTC change from the initial value, does not affect the cooling curves within the vicinity of the sand–metal interface. Optimized initial IHTC values of 3000 and 7000 W m⁻²-K⁻¹ were determined for a sand–metal interface and a chill (steel or copper)–metal interfaces, respectively. The initial IHTC had a significant effect on the prediction of secondary dendrite arm spacing (SDAS) (varying between approximately 15 microns and 70 microns) and ultimate tensile strength (UTS) (varying between approximately 250 MPa and 370 MPa) for initial IHTC values that were less than the optimized value of 7000 W m⁻² K⁻¹ for the chill–metal interfaces.     

Modelling water cooling of steel strip during hot rolling

Several tests of water cooling of steel samples are presented in the paper. The water spray and quenching conditions are considered. The temperature variations during the tests are monitored using the thermocouples embedded in the side of the samples. The experimental time – temperature profiles are compared with the results of calculations based on the finite element model. Comparison of the theoretical and experimental results allowed to suggest heat transfer coefficients of 10000 W/m²K for water in quenching, 6000 W/m²K for the top surface during water spray cooling and 4000 W/m²K for the bottom surface during water spray cooling.     

Mould heat transfer and continuously cast billet quality with mould flux lubrication Part 1 Mould heat transfer

Abstract

With the drive to cast higher quality, many minimills are adopting mould powder as a lubricant for the continous casting of steel billets. Over the past three decades considerable experience has been accumulated on the relationship between mould behaviour and billet quality for oil lubrication, but comparatively few studies have been conducted for mould powder lubrication. This study, conducted at a Canadian minimill, involved instrumenting four faces of a copper mould with thermocouples and monitoring mould temperatures during casting of 208 × 208 mm billets with mould flux lubrication. Billet samples were also taken to coincide with periods of measurements. Mould temperatures were monitored for two different mould powder compositions, for different mould oscillation frequencies, two mould cooling water velocities, and a range of steel compositions. An inverse heat conduction model was developed to calculate mould heat transfer from the measured temperatures. In this paper, which is the first part of a two part series, details of the inverse heat conduction model and mould heat transfer data are presented. The results obtained for mould flux lubrication have been compared with those for mould heat transfer for oil lubrication. For peritectic steels, with carbon content in the range 0·12–0·14%, it was found that lubricant type has little influence on the measured mould heat flux distribution at the centreline of a face. The peak mould heat flux was found to be approximately 2500 kW m^-2 . In contrast, for medium carbon steels, mould heat transfer with mould powder was significantly lower than when oil was employed as a lubricant. For instance, at the meniscus, the peak heat flux with mould powder was approximately 2500 kW m^-2 , which was half that recorded with oil as a lubricant. The influence of oscillation frequency, mould cooling water velocity, and mould powder type on mould heat flux has also been presented.     

Numerical simulation of solidification structure of high carbon SWRH77B billet based on the CAFE method

Abstract

Based on the coupled method of cellular automaton (CA) and finite element (FE), the solidification structure of 160×160 mm cast billet of high carbon SWRH77B steel was simulated. The nucleation density, kinetics of the dendrite tip growth, crystallographic orientation and coupling of CA and FE methods are discussed. In the current study, the influence of superheat on the solidification structure of the billet is researched in detail. The results show that for an increase in superheat extent from 20 to 30°C, the density of grain in billet decreased from 4·662×10⁶ to 3·087×10⁶ m^?2, and the grain mean radius increased from 295·1 to 346·3 μm. The three-dimensional microstructure of high carbon SWRH77B steel was simulated by the CAFE method, and there was good agreement with the results from industrial billet.     

Heat-Transfer Measurements in the Primary Cooling Phase of the Direct-Chill Casting Process

Thermal modeling of the direct-chill casting process requires accurate knowledge of (1) the different boundary conditions in the primary mold and secondary direct water-spray cooling regimes and (2) their variability with respect to process parameters. In this study, heat transfer in the primary cooling zone was investigated by using temperature measurements made with subsurface thermocouples in the mold as input to an inverse heat conduction algorithm. Laboratory-scale experiments were performed to investigate the primary cooling of AA3003 and AA4045 aluminum alloy ingots cast at speeds ranging between 1.58 and 2.10 mm/s. The average heat flux values were calculated for the steady-state phase of the casting process, and an effective heat-transfer coefficient for the global primary cooling process was derived that included convection at the mold surfaces and conduction through the mold wall. Effective heat-transfer coefficients were evaluated at different points along the mold height and compared with values from a previously derived computational fluid dynamics model of the direct-chill casting process that were based on predictions of the air gap thickness between the mold and ingot. The current experimental results closely matched the values previously predicted by the air gap models. The effective heat-transfer coefficient for primary cooling was also found to increase slightly with the casting speed and was higher near the mold top (up to 824 W/m²·K) where the molten aluminum first comes in contact with the mold than near the bottom (as low as 242 W/m²·K) where an air gap forms between the ingot and mold because of thermal contraction of the ingot. These results are consistent with previous studies.     

Influence of nitrogen on hot ductility of steels and its relationship to problem of transverse cracking

Abstract

The present review examines the influence of nitrogen on the hot ductility of steels, with particular relevance to the problem of transverse cracking during continuous casting. Nitrogen itself is not detrimental to hot ductility, but when it is present with aluminium or microalloying additions, ductility can be adversely affected through the formation of nitrides or carbonitrides. The addition of aluminium to low nitrogen C–Mn steels (0·005%N)impairs ductility during casting at an acid soluble level as low as 0·02%Al. This arises because segregation of aluminium to the grain boundaries occurs on solidification, and the temperature cycling that takes place when the strand is cooled encourages AlN precipitation. However, for low nitrogen, high strength low alloy (HSLA) steels with carbon levels in the peritectic range 0·08–0·17%C, transverse cracking is not generally encountered until the aluminium level is >0·04%. Higher nitrogen levels are likely to cause problems even at very low aluminium levels, as precipitation of AlN is controlled by the product of the aluminium and nitrogen contents. The microalloying additions vanadium and niobium are detrimental to ductility but, of the two elements, niobium is more damaging, as it gives finer precipitation. Increasing the nitrogen level has a more pronounced influence on ductility in vanadium containing steels, since vanadium forms a nitride while niobium forms Nb (CN), which is mainly carbon based. Nevertheless, the product of vanadium and nitrogen contents has to approach 1·2 × 10^-3, for example 0·1%V and 0·012%N, before ductility deteriorates to that normally given by a niobium containing steel with 0·03%Nb and 0·005%N. When small titanium additions are made to low nitrogen C–Mn–Al steels (0·005%N), the best ductility is likely to be given by a high Ti/N ratio of 4–5 : 1; the excess titanium in solution encourages growth of the TiN particles. For high nitrogen steels (0·01%N), a low titanium level (0·01%)is recommended to limit the volume fraction of TiN particles. A low soluble aluminium level is also needed to prevent the excess nitrogen from combining to form AlN. For C–Mn–Nb–Al steels, similar recommendations can be made with regard to adding titanium. However, the presence of niobium and aluminium appears to have little influence on ductility, since these elements coarsen the titanium containing precipitates.     

Role of Tungsten in the Tempered Martensite Embrittlement of a Modified 9 Pct Cr Steel

The effect of tempering on the mechanical properties and fracture behavior of two 3 pct Co-modified 9 pct Cr steels with 2 and 3 wt pct W was examined. Both steels were ductile in tension tests and tough under impact tests in high-temperature tempered conditions. At T ≤ 923 K (650 °C), the addition of 1 wt pct W led to low toughness and pronounced embrittlement. The 9Cr2W steel was tough after low-temperature tempering up to 723 K (450 °C). At 798 K (525 °C), the decomposition of retained austenite induced the formation of discontinuous and continuous films of M₂₃C₆ carbides along boundaries in the 9Cr2W and the 9Cr3W steels, respectively, which led to tempered martensite embrittlement (TME). In the 9Cr2W steel, the discontinuous boundary films played a role of crack initiation sites, and the absorption energy was 24 J cm^?2. In the 9Cr3W steel, continuous films provided a fracture path along the boundaries of prior austenite grains (PAG) and interlath boundaries in addition that caused the drop of impact energy to 6 J cm^?2. Tempering at 1023 K (750 °C) completely eliminated TME by spheroidization and the growth of M₂₃C₆ carbides, and both steels exhibited high values of adsorbed energy of ≥230 J cm^?2. The addition of 1 wt pct W extended the temperature domain of TME up to 923 K (650 °C) through the formation of W segregations at boundaries that hindered the spheroidization of M₂₃C₆ carbides.     

Fracture toughness of CF8 castings at four kelvin

The first fracture toughness measurements for CF8 stainless steel castings in liquid helium at 4 K are reported. Single-phase (austenite) and duplex (austenite + δ-ferrite) castings were tested. On the basis of estimates from .J-integral data, the plane-strain fracture toughness(K _lc) of castings containing 3.2 to 14.5 pct δ-ferrite ranged from 84 to 179 MPa · m^1/2 at 4 K. In contrast, a fully austenitic casting (0 pct (δ-ferrite) exhibited aK _lc value of 331 MPa · m^-2, which is nearly equivalent to the toughness of a wrought AISI 304 stainless steel of a similar strength. Light and scanning electron microscopy studies indicate that the inferior toughness of castings containing ·-ferrite may be attributed to the brittleness of this body-centered-cubic phase at cryogenic temperatures and its distribution in the microstructure. The relative stability of the austenitic phase with respect to martensitic phase transformation may also play a significant role.     

Mold Simulator Study of Heat Transfer Phenomenon During the Initial Solidification in Continuous Casting Mold

In this paper, mold simulator trials were firstly carried out to study the phenomena of the initial shell solidification of molten steel and the heat transfer across the initial shell to the infiltrated mold/shell slag film and mold. Second, a one-dimensional inverse heat transfer problem for solidification (1DITPS) was built to determine the temperature distribution and the heat transfer behavior through the solidifying shell from the measured shell thickness. Third, the mold wall temperature field was recovered by a 2DIHCP mathematical model from the measured in-mold wall temperatures. Finally, coupled with the measured slag film thickness and the calculations of 1DITPS and 2DIHCP, the thermal resistance and the thickness of liquid slag film in the vicinity of the meniscus were evaluated. The experiment results show that: the total mold/shell thermal resistance, the mold/slag interfacial thermal resistance, the liquid film thermal resistance, and the solid film thermal resistance is 8.0 to 14.9 × 10^?4, 2.7 to 4.8 × 10^?4, 1.5 to 4.6 × 10^?4, and 3.9 to 6.8 × 10^?4 m² K/W, respectively. The percentage of mold/slag interfacial thermal resistance, liquid film thermal resistance, and solid film thermal resistance over the total mold/shell thermal resistance is 27.5 to 34.4, 17.2 to 34.0, and 38.5 to 48.8 pct, respectively. The ratio of radiation heat flux is around 14.1 to 51.9 pct in the liquid slag film.     

Dependence of Accelerated Creep Rate at 580 °C and Room Temperature Yield Stress for Two Creep Resistant Steels

Two creep resistant steels, P91 and X20, were tempered for 17520 h at 650 °C or 8760 h at 750 °C to study the growth and redistribution of carbide precipitates in martensite. On specimens annealed for a different time, yield stress at room temperature and accelerated creep rate at 580 °C were determined. With increasing yield stress in the range from 350 to 650 MPa the accelerated creep rate decreased continuously by about 2 orders of magnitude from 8·10^?7 s^?1 to 5·10^?9 s^?1. For equal yield stress, the creep rate was slightly lower for the steel P91 than for the steel X20.     

Fracture Toughness of CF8 Castings at Four Kelvin

The first fracture toughness measurements for CF8 stainless steel castings in liquid helium at 4 K are reported. Single-phase (austenite) and duplex (austenite + δ-ferrite) castings were tested. On the basis of estimates from J-integral data, the plane-strain fracture toughness (K_lc) of castings containing 3.2 to 14.5 pct δ-ferrite ranged from 84 to 179 MPa · m^l/2 at 4 K. In contrast, a fully austenitic casting (0 pct δ-ferrite) exhibited a K_lc, value of 331 MPa · m^l/2, which is nearly equivalent to the toughness of a wrought AISI 304 stainless steel of a similar strength. Light and scanning electron microscopy studies indicate that the inferior toughness of castings containing δ-ferrite may be attributed to the brittleness of this body-centered-cubic phase at cryogenic temperatures and its distribution in the microstructure. The relative stability of the austenitic phase with respect to martensitic phase transformation may also play a significant role.     

Dynamic Strain Aging of Various Steels

The dynamic strain aging characteristics of two dual phase steels, a high strength low alloy (HSLA) steel, a 1008 steel and an interstitial free (IF) steel were determined from tensile properties at temperatures in the range 295 to 460 K (22 to 187 °C) and strain rates between 6 × 10^-6 to 10^-2s^-1. All except the IF steel were found to be susceptible to dynamic strain aging, as evidenced by increases in tensile strength. The largest positive change was observed in the 1008 steel while the dual phase and HSLA steels showed much smaller increases. Also, large decreases (up to 75 pct) in uniform elongation were noted for the 1008 steel while the decreases were minimal for the dual phase and HSLA steels. The IF steel did not strain age and showed a slight increase in uniform elongation with increasing temperature. Based upon uniform elongation as an indicator of formability, formability might be improved in dual phase or HSLA steels by reducing the concentration of free interstitials in the ferrites through chemistry control.