正交胶合木楼板全尺寸耐火性能试验研究

开展全尺寸正交胶合木楼板在加载情况下的耐火性能试验,所测试的楼板整体厚度为175 mm,在楼板上方均布2.0 kN/m2的砝码进行加载。两块楼板分别采用耐热型聚氨酯（PUR）胶和普通PUR胶制作,并分别采用单层15 mm厚和双层12 mm厚的耐火石膏板进行防火保护。试验发现,对于采用耐热型PUR胶和15 mm厚耐火石膏板的试件,石膏板的脱落时间约为45～50 min,层板炭化后未发生明显的脱落现象;对于采用普通PUR胶和双层12 mm厚耐火石膏板的试件,第一层石膏板的脱落时间约为30 min,第二层石膏板的脱落时间约为60 min,层板炭化后发生了较明显的脱落现象,脱落时间发生在85～100 min。试验进行至121 min,两块楼板中心的竖向位移值分别为-25、-33 mm,楼板背火面整体完好,表面最高温升不超过2℃。结果表明,所测试的楼板试件在加载情况下的耐火极限不低于2.00 h。     

胶黏剂和指接接头对胶合木性能的影响

采用单组分聚氨酯(PUR),A型双组分异氰酸酯(MDI-A),B型双组分异氰酸酯(MDI-B)和间苯二酚(PRF)4种结构胶黏剂,相邻层板接头距离分别设为0,50,150,300mm以及仅在最下面两层板间距离为50mm的5种指接接头分布模式,制作成以兴安落叶松和日本落叶松为原材料的胶合木试样,并按照标准进行胶层剪切试验、剥离试验和足尺抗弯试验,以探究胶合木层积用胶黏剂对胶合面胶合性能的影响,以及层积方向上相邻层指接接头分布对胶合木抗弯破坏行为的影响.结果表明:4种结构胶黏剂中,PRF胶合性能最优;层间接头分布距离为300mm时,抗弯试验中指接接头的破坏几率最低.     

四面受火胶合木中长柱耐火极限试验研究

通过4组10根胶合木中长柱四面受火的耐火极限试验,研究截面尺寸、持荷水平、阻燃涂料等对胶合木中长柱耐火极限的影响规律。通过理论分析提出了胶合木中长柱基于炭化速度的耐火极限计算方法,并采用有限元软件建立了胶合木柱热力耦合数值分析模型。结果表明,随着持荷水平增加,四面受火胶合木柱耐火极限明显降低,当持荷比由30%增加至50%时,耐火极限平均降低24. 5 min;随着截面尺寸增加,四面受火胶合木柱耐火极限显著提高,当截面尺寸由200 mm×200 mm增加至300 mm×300 mm时,耐火极限平均增加28. 0 min;当胶合木柱表面采用阻燃涂料涂刷后,耐火极限平均增加4. 0 min。胶层、持荷水平和截面尺寸对试件内部距离边缘相同位置处的温度变化无明显影响,表面涂抹阻燃涂料可稍降低试件内部温度的上升速度。垂直胶层方向和平行胶层方向的炭化速度无明显差异,有阻燃涂料处理的木柱炭化速度略小于无阻燃涂料处理的木柱炭化速度。基于剩余截面法计算的四面受火胶合木中长柱耐火极限计算值与试验值的相对误差绝对值的平均值为6. 5%,基本满足工程精度要求。有限元模拟得到的耐火极限与试验值的平均相对误差为8....     

四面受火胶合木中长柱耐火极限试验研究

通过4组10根胶合木中长柱四面受火的耐火极限试验,研究截面尺寸、持荷水平、阻燃涂料等对胶合木中长柱耐火极限的影响规律。通过理论分析提出了胶合木中长柱基于炭化速度的耐火极限计算方法,并采用有限元软件建立了胶合木柱热力耦合数值分析模型。结果表明,随着持荷水平增加,四面受火胶合木柱耐火极限明显降低,当持荷比由30%增加至50%时,耐火极限平均降低24.5 min;随着截面尺寸增加,四面受火胶合木柱耐火极限显著提高,当截面尺寸由200 mm×200 mm增加至300 mm×300 mm时,耐火极限平均增加28.0 min;当胶合木柱表面采用阻燃涂料涂刷后,耐火极限平均增加4.0 min。胶层、持荷水平和截面尺寸对试件内部距离边缘相同位置处的温度变化无明显影响,表面涂抹阻燃涂料可稍降低试件内部温度的上升速度。垂直胶层方向和平行胶层方向的炭化速度无明显差异,有阻燃涂料处理的木柱炭化速度略小于无阻燃涂料处理的木柱炭化速度。基于剩余截面法计算的四面受火胶合木中长柱耐火极限计算值与试验值的相对误差绝对值的平均值为6.5%,基本满足工程精度要求。有限元模拟得到的耐火极限与试验值的平均相对误差为8.6%,也满足工程精度要求。     

填充正交胶合木剪力墙板的胶合木框架抗震性能试验研究

为研究胶合木框架及其填充正交胶合木(CLT)剪力墙板后结构的抗震性能,按照1∶1.5的缩尺比,设计并制作了1个单层单跨胶合木纯框架试件和4个具有不同设计参数的单层单跨胶合木框架-CLT剪力墙板试件,对其进行低周往复加载试验,得到了5个试件的破坏形态、荷载-位移滞回特性、刚度退化、耗能和变形能力等抗震性能指标,分析了胶合木框架与CLT剪力墙板的抗侧协同工作机理。结果表明：胶合木纯框架侧向变形较大,节点区出现明显的剪切裂缝,梁端节点破坏程度明显大于柱脚节点。填充CLT剪力墙板后胶合木框架的抗侧承载力得到较大幅度提高,框架节点的破坏程度得到显著改善,结构的耗能能力明显增强;CLT剪力墙板中开设的洞口类型及尺寸对其破坏方式和破坏程度产生影响。增设门洞、窗洞和无洞口CLT剪力墙板试件较纯框架试件的弹性抗侧刚度分别提高966%、1 147%和1 310%;随着CLT剪力墙板跨高比的增加,试件的承载能力和刚度均有一定的提升。填充CLT剪力墙板后胶合木框架的弹塑性层间位移角介于0.028～0.044;从加载开始至试件破坏,CLT剪力墙板承担的侧向荷载超过50%。     

正交胶合木-混凝土组合楼板单面受火耐火极限试验研究

为研究正交胶合木-混凝土组合楼板的耐火极限，设计并制作了4个正交胶合木-混凝土组合楼板试件和2个正交胶合木楼板对比试件，分别进行常温下受弯加载试验、持荷耐火极限试验和数值模拟。结果表明：常温下正交胶合木楼板的破坏模式主要包括底部规格材的顺纹受拉断裂破坏、上下两层规格材之间横纹劈裂破坏和中部规格材的滚剪破坏；常温下正交胶合木-混凝土组合楼板的破坏模式包括现浇混凝土层与正交胶合木板的界面发生剪切破坏和底部规格材顺纹受拉断裂破坏；常温下正交胶合木-混凝土组合楼板的初始刚度和受弯承载力比正交胶合木楼板的分别提高了237.8%和60.1%。受火后，正交胶合木板底发生了明显炭化，正交胶合木-混凝土组合楼板发生了明显的受弯变形。在荷载比相同的条件下，正交胶合木-混凝土组合楼板的耐火极限比正交胶合木楼板的提高了335.3%;随着荷载比由0.20增加至0.50时，试件耐火极限由74.1 min降低至30.6 min。正交胶合木-混凝土组合楼板耐火极限的数值模拟精度误差在14.1%以内，满足工程精度要求。     

Experimental study on seismic performance of glued-laminated timber frame infilled with CLT shear wall

为研究胶合木框架及其填充正交胶合木（CLT）剪力墙板后结构的抗震性能，按照1∶1.5的缩尺比，设计并制作了1个单层单跨胶合木纯框架试件和4个具有不同设计参数的单层单跨胶合木框架-CLT剪力墙板试件，对其进行低周往复加载试验，得到了5个试件的破坏形态、荷载-位移滞回特性、刚度退化、耗能和变形能力等抗震性能指标，分析了胶合木框架与CLT剪力墙板的抗侧协同工作机理。结果表明：胶合木纯框架侧向变形较大，节点区出现明显的剪切裂缝，梁端节点破坏程度明显大于柱脚节点。填充CLT剪力墙板后胶合木框架的抗侧承载力得到较大幅度提高，框架节点的破坏程度得到显著改善,结构的耗能能力明显增强；CLT剪力墙板中开设的洞口类型及尺寸对其破坏方式和破坏程度产生影响。增设门洞、窗洞和无洞口CLT剪力墙板试件较纯框架试件的弹性抗侧刚度分别提高966%、1147%和1310%；随着CLT剪力墙板跨高比的增加，试件的承载能力和刚度均有一定的提升。填充CLT剪力墙板后胶合木框架的弹塑性层间位移角介于0.028~0.044；从加载开始至试件破坏，CLT剪力墙板承担的侧向荷载超过50%。     

室内火灾作用下正交胶合木结构受火性能研究

为了研究室内自然火灾作用下可燃的正交胶合木(cross laminated timber, CLT)对CLT房间火灾荷载的贡献和不同层板组成的CLT对火灾的动态影响,开展4次内表面受火面积不同、板材层板组成不同的CLT房间自然火灾试验,直接受火CLT面积占CLT房间内表面积百分比分别为0%、19.8%、36.4%和87.6%;并以双区域模型为基础,建立考虑炭化层脱落的CLT结构室内自然火灾温度场计算模型,对CLT房间火灾试验进行模拟,分析双区域模型应用于CLT结构自然火灾时的有效性及局限性。试验结果表明：CLT受火面积对室内自然火灾发展过程及热量释放影响显著,随着CLT受火面积的增大燃烧速率显著提高,火灾的热释放速率增大;炭化层是否脱落对火灾发展过程影响显著,炭化层脱落时间及区域存在随机性;CLT单层层板厚度越薄,炭化层越早发生脱落;考虑CLT燃烧及炭化层脱落的双区域模型可一定程度上准确模拟CLT房间自然火灾室内空气温度,但是火灾降温阶段双区域模型预测的温度始终低于试验温度。     

Experimental study on fire performance of cross laminated timber structure exposed to compartment fire

为了研究室内自然火灾作用下可燃的正交胶合木(cross laminated timber, CLT)对CLT房间火灾荷载的贡献和不同层板组成的CLT对火灾的动态影响，开展4次内表面受火面积不同、板材层板组成不同的CLT房间自然火灾试验，直接受火CLT面积占CLT房间内表面积百分比分别为0%、19.8%、36.4%和87.6%；并以双区域模型为基础，建立考虑炭化层脱落的CLT结构室内自然火灾温度场计算模型，对CLT房间火灾试验进行模拟，分析双区域模型应用于CLT结构自然火灾时的有效性及局限性。试验结果表明：CLT受火面积对室内自然火灾发展过程及热量释放影响显著，随着CLT受火面积的增大燃烧速率显著提高，火灾的热释放速率增大；炭化层是否脱落对火灾发展过程影响显著，炭化层脱落时间及区域存在随机性；CLT单层层板厚度越薄，炭化层越早发生脱落；考虑CLT燃烧及炭化层脱落的双区域模型可一定程度上准确模拟CLT房间自然火灾室内空气温度，但是火灾降温阶段双区域模型预测的温度始终低于试验温度。     

正交胶合木-混凝土组合楼板凹槽连接节点抗火性能研究

为研究火灾下正交胶合木-混凝土组合楼板凹槽连接节点单剪受力性能,设计并制作了9组共27个胶合木-混凝土组合楼板凹槽连接节点试件,分别进行常温下和火灾下加载试验和数值模拟分析。试验结果表明,常温下螺钉的钻入角度对试件典型破坏模式具有重要影响。受火90min及以内各试件组的破坏模式均为凹槽附近混凝土截面的脆性剪切破坏;受火接近120min的试件破坏模式为凹槽附近木材损伤十分严重(炭化和脱落)和凹槽下方木材的顺纹受压屈服,同时自攻螺钉附近部分混凝土被压碎。随着受火时间的逐渐增加,多数试件组的抗剪承载力逐渐降低,最大降低幅度为28.1%。荷载比对试件耐火极限具有重要影响：随着荷载比的不断增加,试件耐火极限最大降幅为50.7%。除试件组SFL3和SFL4外,有限元模型的计算结果与试验结果较为接近,预测误差在15%以内,满足工程精度要求。     

Experimental analysis of cross-laminated timber panels in fire

Design models of timber structures in fire usually take into account the loss in cross-section due to charring of wood. For cross-laminated timber panels in fire only little information on charring is available. The paper describes and discusses the results of an extensive testing programme on the fire behaviour of cross-laminated timber panels under ISO-fire exposure. The fire tests were performed on the small horizontal furnace (1.0×0.8 m) at the Empa in Duebendorf. Particular attention is given to the comparison of the fire behaviour of cross-laminated timber panels with homogeneous timber panels. The results of the fire tests showed that the fire behaviour of cross-laminated timber panels is strongly influenced by the behaviour of the adhesive used for bonding the cross-laminated timber panels. Depending on the properties of the adhesives at elevated temperatures falling off of the charred layers was clearly observed during the fire tests, leading to increased charring rates in comparison to homogeneous timber panels. This is the same effect as observed for initially protected timber members after the fire protection has fallen off. For the specimens where no falling off of the charred layers was observed the fire behaviour was similar to that of homogeneous timber panels.     

Structural response of cross-laminated timber compression elements exposed to fire

A set of novel structural fire tests on axially loaded cross-laminated timber (CLT) compression elements (walls), locally exposed to thermal radiation sufficient to cause sustained flaming combustion, are presented and discussed. Test specimens were subjected to a sustained compressive load, equivalent to 10% or 20% of their nominal ambient axial compressive capacity. The walls were then locally exposed to a nominal constant incident heat flux of 50 kW/m² over their mid height area until failure occurred. The axial and lateral deformations of the walls were measured and compared against predictions calculated using a finite Bernoulli beam element analysis, to shed light on the fundamental mechanics and needs for rational structural design of CLT compression elements in fire. For the walls tested herein, failure at both ambient and elevated temperature was due to global buckling. At high temperature failure results from excessive lateral deflections and second order flexural effects due to reductions the walls' effective cross-section and flexural rigidity, as well as a shift of the effective neutral axis in bending during fire. Measured average one-dimensional charring rates ranged between 0.82 and 1.0 mm/min in these tests. As expected, the lamellae configuration greatly influenced the walls' deformation responses and times to failure; with 3-ply walls failing earlier than those with 5-plies. The walls' deformation response during heating suggests that, if a conventional reduced cross section method (RCSM), zero strength layer analysis were undertaken, the required zero strength layer depths would range between 15.2 mm and 21.8 mm. Deflection paths further suggest that the concept of a zero strength layer is inadequate for properly capturing the mechanical response of fire-exposed CLT compression elements.     

Fire design of timber slabs made of hollow core elements

The fire design of timber structures usually take into account both the loss in cross-section due to charring of wood and the temperature-dependent reduction of strength and stiffness of the uncharred residual cross-section. The fire behaviour of timber assemblies made of hollow core elements is characterised by different charring phases. After the fire exposed timber layer is completely charred and the char-layer has fallen off, the thin vertical timber members are exposed to fire on 3 sides, leading to very irregular residual cross-sections with charring depths much greater than for heavy timber structures. Based on an extensive experimental and parametric study, a simplified calculation model for the fire resistance of timber slabs made of hollow core elements has been developed. The calculation model bases on the reduced cross-section method and takes into account two different charring phases. The paper first describes and discusses the simplified calculation model, and then compares the test results to the calculation model.     

Behaviour of Loaded Cross-Laminated Timber Wall Elements in Fire Conditions

Cross-laminated timber (CLT) is increasingly being used in medium-rise timber buildings for a number of reasons, such as rapidity of construction, cost effectiveness and robustness. Like for other building materials, verification of the load-bearing performance in fire conditions is an important issue. Experimental fire tests have been performed on loaded CLT wall elements at research institutes in Sweden and Italy. In total, three large-scale and four medium-scale tests have been carried out. The aim was to gain information about initially protected and unprotected elements, to be used for classification and also for validation of calculation models. In the test series, reference tests at normal temperature were included to obtain information (e.g. stiffness, strength) about the material tested in fire conditions. In addition, model-scale fire tests were performed to investigate the loss in stiffness resulting from fire exposure and the effect of different protection types. Loaded fire tests varied in the range of 41.8 min to 120 min, depending on the CLT structure, the level of load, and the type of protection. Data on temperature within specimens and residual cross-sections were collected. Charring rates evaluated from experimental results were comparable with values proposed by Eurocode for the design of timber structures. Conservative solutions were obtained by using simplified design methods and comparing their results to test results and results of advanced modelling. It was shown that the load-bearing performance of CLT may show abrupt changes due to its layered structure. It is strongly recommended that a minimum residual depth depending on the CLT structure should be required in order to ensure robust building products.     

Fire resistance of timbers from tropical countries and comparison of experimental charring rates with various models

Tropical hardwood species are more and more used in the field of construction due to the particular qualities they can offer. Presently it is no longer possible to envisage the development of construction materials and products without taking into consideration the problem of their fire behaviour, and more particularly of their fire resistance. In the case of timber elements, this characteristic is mainly influenced by the charring rate of the external layers of the element. On the other hand this parameter is influenced by the density of the material.Limited information is available on the charring rate of tropical hardwood species. Therefore experimental investigations have been conducted at the University of Liege to study this characteristic. Seven tropical and three timber species from temperate countries have been examined. Two types of test have been used, one on small specimens, the other on a construction element made of one single material. In the first type, 20 specimens have been manufactured by gluing several laminates together. The specimens were instrumented with four thermocouples inserted at various depths in four different laminates. In the second type, a non-loaded wall made of 12 glued-laminated spruce beam profiles was instrumented with thermocouples embedded at different depths in the panel for the evaluation of the charring rate.Experimental charring rates have been compared with the results derived from Eurocode EC5-1.2 recommendation [ENV 1995-1-2. Eurocode 5: Design of timber structures – Part 1–2: General rules – Structural fire design. European prestandard; 1994], Australian standard AS 1720.4 relation [AS 1720.4. Timber structures Part 4: fire resistance of structural timber members. North Sydney, Australia: Standards Australia; 1990] and White’s model [Charring rates of different wood species. PhD dissertation. Madison University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, 1988; White RH, Erik V, Nordheim EV. Charring rate of wood for ASTM E119 exposure. Fire Technol 1992;28(1)]. This comparison shows that the results obtained from these three models are not entirely satisfactory for tropical hardwood species. Therefore a new model has been proposed.     

基于无损检测的梁柱式木框架受火后剩余承载力研究

为利用无损检测评估木框架受火后剩余承载力,进行了两榀梁柱式木框架受火试验、阻抗仪无损检测试验以及火灾后剩余承载力试验研究,了解不同受火时间下木框架炭化速度、破坏形态和剩余承载力的变化规律,并采用ABAQUS软件对受火后木框架进行数值模拟分析,验证其极限承载力及破坏规律。研究结果表明：受火后木框架构件梁柱炭化速度相差不大,其炭化速度随受火时间的增大而减小;受火后木材材性参数与阻抗值存在一定的线性回归关系;考虑小试件强度转化为构件强度的影响因素后,受火后木框架构件材性参数亦可通过阻抗值获得;受火后木框架极限承载力明显降低,最终为梁跨中底部拉裂破坏;结合无损检测手段获得的受火后木框架构件材性参数,进行有限元模拟的结果与试验吻合,因此采用无损检测对受火后木框架剩余承载力评估是可行的。     

Bemessung von Holzdecken aus Hohlkastenelementen im Brandfall

Fire behaviour of timber slabs made of hollow core elements This paper presents a simplified design method for the calculation of the fire resistance of timber slabs made of hollow core elements. The simplified design method is based on the reduced cross‐section method according to Eurocode 5 and takes into account two different charring phases, before and after the lower fire‐exposed layer is completely charred. For simplicity linear relationships between charring depth and time are assumed for each phase. The first part of the paper describes the simplified calculation model, in the second part results of fire tests are compared to the calculation model.     

Critical heat flux and mass loss rate for extinction of flaming combustion of timber

The critical mass loss rate and critical heat flux for self-extinction of flaming combustion during steady-state burning of timber was measured in this study for a range of timber species. A vertical mass loss calorimeter was used to provide the external heat flux and to measure the mass loss of the timber samples. The results showed that the critical mass loss rate was dependent upon the timber species but did not show a clear dependency with the timber density. Critical mass loss rates and heat fluxes for self-extinction exist for each of the timber species tested for both the solid timber and cross laminated timber (CLT). Debonding of both the char layer and the individual lamella of the CLT caused increased mass loss rates, re-ignition after self-extinction and increased flame lengths. Both char and ply fall-off were observed.     

Charring model for timber frame floor assemblies with void cavities

Design models of timber structures in fire usually take into account the loss in cross section due to charring of wood and the temperature-dependent reduction of strength and stiffness of the uncharred residual cross section. For timber frame wall and floor assemblies with void cavities, only a little information is available. In the first part of the paper, the results of an extensive FE-thermal analysis on initially protected timber beams exposed to fire on three sides, after the fire protection has fallen off (post-protection phase), are presented. The FE-thermal analysis verified by fire tests on protected timber specimens exposed to one-dimensional charring permitted the analysis of the main parameters, which influence charring during the post-protection phase. Based on the FE-results, a charring model for timber frame floor assemblies with void cavities has been developed and is presented in the second part of the paper. The charring model takes into account the influence of high temperature during the post-protection phase as well as the heat flux superposition on the charring rate of the timber beams exposed to fire on three sides.     

铁杉正交胶合木板弯曲及剪切性能

为了评估基于铁杉胶合、组坯而成的正交胶合木(cross-laminated timber,CLT)的力学性能,通过试验分别测试了五层层板构造的铁杉CLT在强弱轴方向的弯曲及剪切性能,并分析了该板材的破坏模式.基于试验获取的荷载-挠度关系曲线,采用剪切类比法(shear analogy method),获取了该铁杉CLT...