Mycotoxins in spices]

Since antiquity, spices have been used for flavoring foods and beverages and for medication. They play an important role in the national economy of several of the producing, exporting and importing countries. Tropical climatic conditions under which spices are grown offer a favorable environment for the fungal and mycotoxin contamination. This review summarized information from 44 reports on the occurrence of mycotoxins (aflatoxins, ochratoxins zearalenone, fumonisins, trichothecenes) and their levels in different spices. Aflatoxins which are highly carcinogenic compounds, produced by A. flavus and A. parasiticus, are the leading toxins present in red peppers (paprika, chilli, cayenne) nutmeg, mustard, ginger, black and white peppers, coriander. Ochratoxins have been reported also as a natural contaminants in many spices. Although the levels of mycotoxins are generally low when compared with other food products, the testing of spices (imported and domestic) by regulatory agencies seems to be in need of expansion.     

重庆地区辣椒、花椒、八角中真菌毒素污染状况分析

目的 了解重庆地区辣椒、花椒和八角中真菌毒素污染状况。方法 采用随机抽样方法,在重庆地区盘溪、菜园坝和江津三个市场,抽取180批次香辛料样品,采用HPLC-MS/MS检测黄曲霉毒素（AFB1、AFB2、AFG1和AFG2）、赭曲霉毒素A（OTA）和伏马毒素（FB1和FB2）。结果 重庆地区辣椒、花椒和八角中的真菌毒素总检出率分别为60.0%、100%、96.7%。AFs和OTA是三种香辛料最主要的污染毒素,其中AFG2是最主要的黄曲霉代谢产物。盘溪市场的AFs污染总体情况稍好,菜园坝市场AFs污染最严重;江津市场的OTA污染最为严重。结论 香辛料中存在真菌毒素污染,有必要建立香辛料中真菌毒素的限量标准。     

The determination of aflatoxins in spices by immunoaffinity column extraction using HPLC

Seventy‐five samples of different spices marketed in Turkey were purchased from bazaars, herbal shops and supermarkets. Equal amounts of paprika, chilli, black peppers and cumin were purchased and used to test and compare the amount of aflatoxin contamination. Two different analytical methods were examined for their efficacy by adding a known amount of aflatoxin to the blank samples of paprika. Twenty‐seven paprika, all the chilli powder and four ground black pepper samples were contaminated with aflatoxin B₁ in the range of 0.5–116.4, 1.6–80.4 and 0.3–1.2 μg kg^?1 respectively. Twenty‐three (30%) paprika and chilli powder samples were above the regulatory limits used in the European Union. No aflatoxin contamination was detected in the cumin samples at a detection limit of 0.2 μg kg^?1.     

Mycological survey for potential aflatoxin and ochratoxin producers and their toxicological properties in harvested Brazilian black pepper.

A mycological survey was carried out on 115 samples of whole dried black pepper seeds, from two main production regions of Brazil (Pará and Espírito Santo). A high incidence of contamination was verified in both regions when 99.1% of the samples showed filamentous fungi contamination. A total of 497 species of nine different genera were isolated (Aspergillus, Eurotium, Rhizopus, Penicillium, Curvularia, Cladosporium, Absidia, Emericella and Paecilomyces). The genus Aspergillus was the predominant (53.5%) followed by species from the Eurotium genus (24.5%). Eurotium chevalieri (16.4%) was the most predominant species followed by A. flavus (14.6%) present on 55 samples of black pepper (47.8%) analysed. Twenty-five samples (21.7%) were contaminated with aflatoxigenic strains of A. flavus and A. parasiticus. In relation to the types of aflatoxins produced by mycotoxigenic strains, it was observed that 25 strains (44.6%) of 56 isolated of A. flavus produced aflatoxins. From 12 samples, A. ochraceus species were isolated in low frequency (3.5%). Two strains of A. ochraceus from 16 isolated were producers of ochratoxin A. With respect to the aflatoxins and ochratoxin A natural contamination, none of the samples presented detectable levels of these mycotoxins using thin-layer chromatographic analysis.     

Mycotoxins in spices and herbs–An update

Spices and herbs have been used since ancient times as flavor and aroma enhancers, colorants, preservatives, and traditional medicines. There are more than 30 spices and herbs of global economic and culinary importance. Among the spices, black pepper, capsicums, cumin, cinnamon, nutmeg, ginger, turmeric, saffron, coriander, cloves, dill, mint, thyme, sesame seed, mustard seed, and curry powder are the most popular spices worldwide. In addition to their culinary uses, a number of functional properties of aromatic herbs and spices are also well described in the scientific literature. However, spices and herbs cultivated mainly in tropic and subtropic areas can be exposed to contamination with toxigenic fungi and subsequently mycotoxins. This review provides an overview on the mycotoxin risk in widely consumed spices and aromatic herbs.     

Rhodamine B in spices determined by a sensitive UPLC-MS/MS method

Rhodamine B (RhB) is a banned food additive and has been classified as illegal colourant. Therefore, the risk of RhB contamination should be strictly monitored. In this study, a sensitive UPLC-MS/MS method was applied to monitor RhB in 292 various spices such as chilli, pepper and tomato products. The results showed 22.7% of chilli powder samples, 18.5% of pepper powder samples, 11.1% of chilli oil samples and 9.1% of pepper oil samples were contaminated with RhB. Chilli powder contained RhB up to 44,935 μg/kg with an average of 743 μg/kg, pepper powder up to 65.9 μg/kg with an average of 4.1 μg/kg, chilli oil up to 14.6 μg/kg with an average of 1.0 μg/kg and pepper oil up to 1.1 μg/kg with an average of 0.2 μg/kg, respectively. Considering the common consumption of chilli products and pepper products by so many consumers, RhB exposure is significant and should be decreased.     

Aflatoxin and ochratoxin A content of spices in Hungary

In October and November 2004, 91 spice samples (70 ground red pepper, six black pepper, five white pepper, five spice mix and five chilli samples), the majority of which originated from commercial outlets, were analysed for aflatoxins B₁, B₂, G₁ and G₂ (AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2) and ochratoxin A (OTA) content by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) after immunoaffinity column clean-up. Eighteen of the 70 ground red pepper samples contained AFB1, seven of them in a concentration exceeding the 'maximum level' of 5 µg kg^-1 (range 6.1-15.7 µg kg^-1). Of the other spices assayed, the AFB1 contamination of one chilli sample exceeded 5 µg kg^-1 (8.1 µg kg^-1). Thirty-two of the 70 ground red pepper samples contained OTA, eight of them in a concentration exceeding the 10 µg kg^-1 'maximum level' (range 10.6-66.2 µg kg^-1). One chilli sample was contaminated with OTA at 2.1 µg kg^-1. The AFB1 and OTA contamination of ground red pepper exceeding the 'maximum level' (5 and 10 µg kg^-1, respectively) was obviously the consequence of mixing imported ground red pepper batches heavily contaminated with AFB1 and OTA with red pepper produced in Hungary. This case calls attention to the importance of consistently screening imported batches of ground red pepper for aflatoxin and ochratoxin A content and strictly prohibiting the use of batches containing mycotoxin concentrations exceeding the maximum permitted level.     

Co-occurrence of aflatoxins,ochratoxin A and zearalenone in Capsicum powder samples available on the Spanish market

The aim of this study was to determine the co-occurrence of aflatoxins (AFs), ochratoxin A (OTA) and zearalenone (ZEA) in paprika and chilli samples purchased in Spain, using HPLC with fluorescence detection. The occurrence of mycotoxin in 64 paprika samples was 59% for AFs, 98% for OTA and 39% for ZEA, whereas in the 35 chilli samples, the contamination was 40% for AFs, 100% for OTA and 46% for ZEA. None of the samples had AFs levels higher than the legally allowable limits. Regarding the co-occurrence of mycotoxins, 75% of paprika samples and 65% of chilli samples contained more than one mycotoxin. Chilli samples generally had lower concentrations of AFB1, AFB2, total AFs and OTA than had paprika samples. The high incidence of OTA contamination suggests that additional legislation may be required to for these kinds of spices.     

Sterilization of Ground Prepacked Indian Spices by Gamma Irradiation

Prepacked ground Indian spices which included pepper. turmeric, chilli, and coriander were found to be heavily contaminated with bacteria and molds. The total bacterial counts ranged between 10⁵–10⁷. whereas total fungal counts ranged between 10²–10⁶. Red chilli was found to be the most contaminated spice. The bacterial population consisted mainly of spores. A dose of 10 kGy was found to be effective in destroying these microbes in prepacked spices without affecting their quality attributes. To eliminate mold contamination a dose of 5 kGy was sufficient. During a six-month storage study of irradiated and unirradiated spices, the irradiated spices were found to retain their quality.     

中国谷物真菌毒素污染研究现状

谷物易受多种真菌毒素污染且消费量巨大，是人畜真菌毒素的主要摄入来源。本文统计了2009年至今关于我国谷物中真菌毒素污染的研究报道，发现国内的研究大多集中在水稻、小麦和玉米，而杂粮作物少之又少。其中，水稻受真菌毒素污染情况较轻；小麦主要受镰刀菌毒素污染，尤其是脱氧雪腐镰刀菌烯醇和玉米赤霉烯酮；玉米则易感染多种真菌毒素。此外，小杂粮薏米、燕麦、谷子和高粱也有不同程度的污染。为明确谷物质量安全隐患，有效缓解谷物中真菌毒素的污染，我们应进一步加强对重要杂粮作物中真菌毒素的监管力度，建立更全面的真菌毒素筛查方法，建设真菌毒素防控标准化体系，强化农民对真菌毒素防控的意识与技术。     

Assessment of hot peppers for aflatoxin and mold proliferation during storage

Aflatoxin contamination and mold proliferation in three hot pepper hybrids (Sky Red, Maha, and Wonder King) were studied during 5 months of storage at three temperatures (20, 25, and 30°C) and under different packaging conditions (low-density polyethylene bags and jute bags). The presence of aflatoxins in hot pepper samples was determined by high-performance liquid chromatography with a UV-Vis detector. Sampling for analysis of aflatoxins, total mold counts, and Aspergillus counts was carried out at 0, 50, 100, and 150 days of storage. Hot peppers packed in jute bags were more susceptible to aflatoxin contamination than those packed in polyethylene bags; aflatoxin concentrations were 75% higher in peppers stored in jute bags. The effect of storage temperature resulted in aflatoxin concentrations that were 61% higher in hot peppers stored at 25 and 30°C than in those stored at 20°C. Of the three pepper hybrids, Wonder King was more susceptible to aflatoxin contamination, with a maximum of 1.50 μg/kg when packed in jute bags and stored at 25°C for 150 days. However, no sample exceeded the maximum permitted level for total aflatoxins in spices established by European Union regulations (10 μg/kg). Total mold counts and Aspergillus counts increased with storage duration, but all counts were significantly lower in peppers stored in polyethylene bags. A gradual increase in temperature during prolonged storage of hot peppers in combination with aeration may be the main reasons for increases in fungal biomass and Aspergillus proliferation with the subsequent aflatoxin production.     

茶叶中真菌毒素污染的国内外研究概况

本文综述了国内外与茶叶真菌毒素污染有关的研究,结果表明,红茶、绿茶、白茶和黑茶都可能污染真菌和真菌毒素,应引起我国相关部门的重视。为降低真菌毒素污染茶叶的风险,建议加强茶叶毒素检测,普查各类茶叶真菌毒素污染情况;应用过程控制原理,筛选不产毒素菌株发酵黑茶,监测发酵过程,建立安全的黑茶发酵技术体系。     

西藏高原粮油作物曲霉菌污染及菌株产毒力研究

为探明西藏高原粮油作物曲霉菌污染状况及黄曲霉菌产毒能力,连续5年对西藏青稞、小麦、花生3种作物中曲霉菌污染情况进行分析,并对其分离到的黄曲霉菌株开展产毒力研究,结果表明,204份样品中,共分离出15种曲霉菌,曲霉菌污染率呈花生>青稞>小麦。青稞、小麦中曲霉属优势种均为黑曲霉(Aspergillus niger),真菌毒素主要为杂色曲霉毒素和赭曲霉毒素;花生优势种为黄曲霉(A.flavus);仅受黄曲霉毒素污染。来源于不同作物的黄曲霉菌,其产毒类型也有差异,麦类作物产毒菌株以产黄曲霉毒素B₁(AFB₁)、黄曲霉毒素B₂(AFB₂)为主;花生产毒菌株以产AFB₁、AFB₂、AFG₁、AFG₂为主。     

香辛料提取物抑菌作用的研究

以16种香辛料为原料,采用超声波辅助萃取法进行提取,并测试其醇提物对细菌和霉菌的抑制作用,结果表明:各种香辛料对细菌、霉菌都有一定的抑制作用,但抑制效果各不相同。其中,花椒对3种细菌的抑制效果最好;沙姜干和黑胡椒对黄曲霉的抑菌效果最优;草果对黑曲霉的抑菌直径最大;而沙姜干对米曲霉的抑制效果也较好。     

两个不同品种辣椒盐渍过程中细菌群落及品质变化研究

为探究辣椒盐渍过程细菌群落及品质变化,选取山东地区的金塔和艳红辣椒,监测了盐渍12周内样品细菌群落、可滴定酸、pH、水分含量、水分活度、氯化钠、还原糖、辣度、有机酸、核苷酸和氨基酸态氮11个指标。结果表明:两种辣椒盐渍第3周是细菌动态变化的拐点,在此之前,魏斯氏菌属、乳杆菌属等盐渍有益菌数量较多,在此之后肠杆菌属数量增加,可能由于两种辣椒的发酵程度不高,无法抑制肠杆菌的生长。两种辣椒盐渍第4周是品质与风味变化的拐点,在此之前还原糖、乳酸、乙酸、核苷酸和氨基酸态氮这些能赋予盐渍辣椒良好风味的物质含量较高,氯化钠含量适宜。因此,本研究中金塔与艳红盐渍辣椒的最适宜盐渍时间为3～4周。并且水分活度和水分含量决定了盐渍程度。金塔盐渍辣椒水分活度和水分含量分别稳定在0.80和69.3%左右,高于艳红盐渍辣椒的0.78和63.5%,因此推测金塔盐渍辣椒发酵程度更高。本研究为盐渍辣椒加工企业生产技术工艺优化提供数据与技术支持,为推进盐渍辣椒产品高质量发展提供理论支撑。     

Mycobiota and mycotoxins in Brazilian peanut kernels from sowing to harvest

The total mycobiota and the mycotoxin contamination of peanuts were analyzed in plants collected at different stages of the pod maturity sampled in Junqueirópolis, at S?o Paulo State (Brazil). The prevalent peanut mycobiota were Fusarium spp. and Aspergillus flavus, present in 26% and 17% respectively of the samples analyzed. In soil, the genus Penicillium and Fusarium were most frequently detected, and A. flavus was detected in 8% of the samples. The screening of mycotoxins indicated that aflatoxins and cyclopiazonic acid were present the highest incidence, being detected in 32% of the samples, in concentrations, respectively, from 4.20 microg/kg to 198.84 microg/kg and from 260 microg/kg to 600 microg/kg. Fumonisins were not detected by HPLC. All data were correlated with the occurrence of wind-dispersed fungi and the environmental and soil conditions. Results indicate that good management of the agricultural environment may offer a way to reduce mycotoxins and the toxigenic fungal contamination in peanuts preharvest because the pods are exposed to different environmental conditions during their formation until harvest, and the optimal conditions for mycotoxin production and fungal growth are frequently found in the crop fields.     

Mycotoxin Contamination of Maize in China

China is a major cereal‐producing country and almost one third of the annual cereal yield is maize. The maize plant and kernel are prone to infection by fungal attack and are most likely to be contaminated with mycotoxins under suitable temperature and humidity conditions, during both the growing and storage period. A number of investigations conducted in China have demonstrated that maize had been infected by fungi and contaminated with mycotoxins to varying degrees. Although most of the maize produced in China is used as feed and raw materials for the chemistry industry, a small amount of maize is consumed directly by humans and the hazards of mycotoxin to humans cannot be ignored. The state of mycotoxin contamination of maize in China is analyzed in this review. Due to unfavorable weather and poor storage conditions, the high incidences of mycotoxin contamination of maize are of great concern to the Chinese. It is imperative for the national and local governments to increase investments on building large‐scale modern warehouses and instructing farmers to grow, harvest, and store maize safely. Meanwhile, due to accumulative toxic effects of mycotoxins, quality control should be enforced to guarantee that animal products are safe for human consumption.     

Occurrence of aflatoxins and aflatoxin-producing moulds in fresh and processed meat in Egypt.

A survey was carried out to detect aflatoxins and isolate aflatoxigenic moulds contaminating fresh and processed meat products. The fungal contamination was examined in 215 samples of fresh and processed meat products and 130 samples of spices used in the meat industry collected from different local companies in Cairo, Egypt. Processed meat products such as beefburger, hot-dog, kubeba, sausage, luncheon meat had the highest count of moulds as compared with fresh and canned meat. Out of 150 samples of meat products and 100 samples of spices, aflatoxin B1 was detected in five samples of beefburger, (8 micrograms/kg), four samples of black pepper (35 micrograms/kg), and four samples of white pepper (22 micrograms/kg). Aflatoxins B1 and B2 were detected in one sample of kubeba (150 micrograms B1/kg and 25 micrograms B2/kg); hot-dog (5 micrograms B1/kg and 2 micrograms B2/kg) sausage (7 micrograms B1/kg and 3 micrograms B2/kg) and luncheon meat (4 micrograms B1/kg and 2 micrograms B2/kg). Also, aflatoxins B1 and G1 were detected in two samples of turmeric (12 micrograms B1/kg and 8 micrograms G1/kg) and coriander (8 micrograms B1/kg and 2 micrograms G1/kg). Aspergillus flavus (24 isolates), and Aspergillus parasiticus (16 isolates) were the predominant aflatoxin-producing moulds isolated from both processed meat products and spices. Aflatoxins were absent in fresh meat, canned meat, salami, beefsteak and minced meat. The contamination of processed meat with aflatoxin was shown to correlate with the addition of spices to fresh meat.     

Post-harvest control strategies: minimizing mycotoxins in the food chain

Contamination of cereal commodities by moulds and mycotoxins results in dry matter, quality, and nutritional losses and represents a significant hazard to the food chain. Most grain is harvested, dried and then stored on farm or in silos for medium/long term storage. Cereal quality is influenced by a range of interacting abiotic and biotic factors. In the so-called stored grain ecosystem, factors include grain and contaminant mould respiration, insect pests, rodents and the key environmental factors of temperature, water availability and intergranular gas composition, and preservatives which are added to conserve moist grain for animal feed. Thus knowledge of the key critical control points during harvesting, drying and storage stages in the cereal production chain are essential in developing effective prevention strategies post-harvest. Studies show that very small amounts of dry matter loss due to mould activity can be tolerated. With <0.5% dry matter loss visible moulding, mycotoxin contamination and downgrading of lots can occur. The key mycotoxigenic moulds in partially dried grain are Penicillium verrucosum (ochratoxin) in damp cool climates of Northern Europe, and Aspergillus flavus (aflatoxins), A. ochraceus (ochratoxin) and some Fusarium species (fumonisins, trichothecenes) on temperate and tropical cereals. Studies on the ecology of these species has resulted in modelling of germination, growth and mycotoxin minima and prediction of fungal contamination levels which may lead to mycotoxin contamination above the tolerable legislative limits (e.g. for ochratoxin). The effect of modified atmospheres and fumigation with sulphur dioxide and ammonia have been attempted to try and control mould spoilage in storage. Elevated CO2 of >75% are required to ensure that growth of mycotoxigenic moulds does not occur in partially dried grain. Sometimes, preservatives based on aliphatic acids have been used to prevent spoilage and mycotoxin contamination of stored commodities, especially feed. These are predominantly fungistats and attempts have been made to use alternatives such as essential oils and anti-oxidants to prevent growth and mycotoxin accumulation in partially dried grain. Interactions between spoilage and mycotoxigenic fungi and insect pests inevitably occurs in stored grain ecosystems and this can further influence contamination with mycotoxins. Effective post-harvest management of stored commodities requires clear monitoring criteria and effective implementation in relation to abiotic and biotic factors, hygiene and monitoring to ensure that mycotoxin contamination is minimised and that stored grain can proceed through the food chain for processing.     

Inhibition of aflatoxin formation by some spices

The effects of black pepper, cinnamon, peppermint, cumin, ginger and clove on growth and aflatoxin formation of Aspergillus flavus were studied in rice powdercorn steep (RC) medium. The effects of the first five spices were judged to be inhibition of aflatoxin formation rather than of mycelial growth. Clove completely inhibited both mycelial growth and aflatoxin formation at a concentration above 0.1%. No aflatoxin was produced when cumin and mint levels of 5% and 10% were used. Black pepper and ginger levels of 10% decreased aflatoxin formation by 100%. Higher concentrations of cinnamon, mint, cumin and ginger stimulated mycelial growth.