Effects of dominance and sex on leader selection in dyadic work groups.

E. I. Megargee (1969) found that high-dominant females, as assessed by the California Personality Inventory Dominance scale, did not assert leadership over low-dominant males. In the present study, 378 undergraduates were paired into dyads with 1 high- and 1 low-dominant S. In the no-feedback condition, Ss received no feedback concerning task competence. In the feedback condition, the Ss who did not usually emerge as leader in Megargee's study were given feedback that they had performed better than did their partner on a pretest. Megargee's results were replicated in the no-feedback condition except in the high-dominant female/low-dominant male group, where significantly more females became leader than in Megargee's study. Feedback of better performance increased the S's likelihood of being leader. Feedback of poorer performance reduced the S's initial desire to be leader, but feedback of better performance did not affect the initial preferences. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Interpersonal effects of experimenter attractiveness, attire, and gender.

Investigated the effects of experimenter physical attractiveness and attire in same- and mixed-sex dyads. Six male and 6 female experimenters interacted with 30 male and 30 female undergraduate Ss. Each experimenter saw 1 male and 1 female while well-dressed and 1 male and 1 female while casually dressed. A vocabulary test and a photo-rating task were administered to Ss by experimenters in each meeting. Later, Ss completed the Adjective Check List (ACL) to indicate how they perceived the experimenter. Results show that experimenters in opposite-sex dyads received higher positivity ratings on the ACL; these ratings were also differentially affected by experimenters' sex and physical attractiveness, although no main effect for experimenter physical attractiveness was significant. Findings suggest the need for a more integrated, multivariable approach to interpersonal behavior. (41 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Women's intuition: The effect of subordinate role on interpersonal sensitivity.

Investigated the thesis that the subordinate status of women in Western society may have led to their development of greater interpersonal sensitivity and intuition. The effects of sex and leader/subordinate role on interpersonal sensitivity were examined in 36 same- or mixed-sex dyads (composed predominantly of undergraduates) that interacted for 1 hr. One member of each dyad was randomly assigned to the leader role. Throughout the interaction, Ss completed rating scales describing their feelings. Results show that subordinates were more sensitive than leaders to the feelings of the other dyad member. Women were not more sensitive than men. However, mixed-sex dyads were more sensitive than same-sex dyads, and the sex of the other person had a greater effect on women than on men. A combination of leader expressiveness and subordinate perceptiveness are posited to underlie this role effect. Results support the subordinate role explanation for female superiority in interpersonal sensitivity. (40 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of dispositional and situational influences on women's dominance expression in mixed-sex dyads.

Partners in 61 mixed-sex dyads, each classified as high or low in dispositional dominance and grouped in 4 dominance combinations (high–high, low–high, high–low, and low–low), first interacted to complete an audiotaped verbal task from which 5 behavioral measures of dominance were obtained and then selected a leader for a machine repair task. Prior task interactions diminished status differences between male and female partners, allowing high dominant women paired with low dominant men to become leader 71% of the time, far more often than previous studies have found for this pairing. Also, it was found that the level of dominance expression for these high dominant women was influenced by their male partner's dominance level: High dominant women paired with high dominant men assumed the leadership role only 31% of the time. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On the social advantages of having an older, opposite-sex sibling: Birth order influences in mixed-sex dyads.

Examined the influences of birth order on behavior occurring in the initial, unstructured interactions of 40 mixed-sex dyads composed of a male and a female undergraduate who each had a sibling of the opposite sex. The design contrasted 4 dyad types: (a) a firstborn man paired with a firstborn woman, (b) a firstborn man paired with a last born woman, (c) a last born man paired with a firstborn woman, and (d) a last born man paired with a last born woman. Each pair of Ss was videotaped during their 5-min initial meeting. Ss then completed questionnaires about the interaction. Results indicate that Ss with an older, opposite-sex sibling were particularly likely to have rewarding interactions with strangers of the opposite sex. Relative to firstborn men, last born men talked nearly twice as long, asked more questions, and evoked more gazes, verbal reinforcers, and self-reported liking from their female partners. Relative to firstborn women, last born women were more likely to initiate the interaction and to exceed the rate at which their male partners smiled. (64 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Authoritarian dynamics and unethical decision making: High social dominance orientation leaders and high right-wing authoritarianism followers.

When dilemmas require trade-offs between profits and ethics, do leaders high in social dominance orientation (SDO) and followers high in right-wing authoritarianism (RWA) make decisions that are more unethical than those made by others? This issue was explored in 4 studies with female participants performing managerial role-playing tasks. First, dyads comprising a person who was either low or high in SDO and a person who was either low or high in RWA negotiated for a leadership position. People high in SDO were more likely to obtain leader positions than to obtain follower positions. No other effects were significant. Second, leaders high in SDO partnered with an agreeable (confederate) follower made decisions that were more unethical than those of leaders low in SDO. Third, followers high in RWA were more acquiescent to and supportive of an unethical (confederate) leader than were followers low in RWA. Fourth, high SDO leader-high RWA follower dyads made decisions that were more unethical than those made in role-reversed dyads because leaders had more influence. Implications of these results for conceptualizing SDO, RWA, and authoritarian dynamics are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Further effects of role versus gender on interpersonal sensitivity.

Past research has shown that, regardless of sex, those in a subordinate role are more sensitive to how their leaders feel about them than are the leaders sensitive to their subordinates, suggesting that the stereotypically greater sensitivity of women might be explained by their traditionally subordinate role to men. The present study further investigated this phenomenon, specifically in a boss–employee situation. A total of 120 Ss interacted in 96 pairs (male, female, and mixed-sex). Results revealed no significant sex differences but indicated that subordinates were more sensitive to how their leaders felt about them (the subordinates), and leaders were more sensitive to how their subordinates felt about themselves. Findings are discussed in relation to role requirements of leader and subordinate. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Gender differences in interaction style and influence": Correction.

Reports an error in the original article by L. L. Carli (Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1989, [Apr] Vol 56[4], 565–576). On page 567, the 3rd sentence in the Procedure section should read, "Half of the subjects were paired with same-sex partners and half with opposite-sex partners, resulting in 16 female pairs, 16 male pairs, and 32 mixed-sex pairs.' On page 568, the equation at the bottom of the left-hand column should read as follows: (Mfs?–?Mms?–?Mfm?+?Mmm)/((2MSe?+ &2MS′e)(1/n))?. (The following abstract of this article originally appeared in record 1989-25837-001.) Observed 128 Ss in mixed- and same-sex dyads to examine effects of interaction on sex differences in influence. Ss discussed 2 topics on which they disagreed. During the 2nd discussion, 1 S in each pair was told to influence the other. Ss showed more agreement and positive social behavior when paired with a woman and more disagreement and task behavior when paired with a man. Although… (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Boys and girls together—and alienated: On enacting stereotyped sex roles in mixed-sex dyads.

Determined how individual differences in sex role orientation (assessed by the Bem Sex Role Inventory) were related to behavior of 43 male and 43 female undergraduates during an initial, unstructured interaction in mixed-sex dyads. The design contrasted 4 different dyad types: (a) the male and female were stereotypically sex typed correspondent to their gender (male ST–female ST). (b) The male was stereotypically sex typed as masculine and the female as androgynous (male ST–female A). (c) The male was androgynous and the female was sex typed as feminine (male A–female ST). (d) Both were androgynous (male A–female A). Analyses of the Ss' behavior during the 5-min interaction period and self-report data collected afterward revealed significantly less interaction and interpersonal attraction in the male ST–female ST dyads than in the other dyad types. Data are discussed in terms of S. L. Bem's (1974) conception of sex role identification and M. Snyder's (1974) conception of self-monitoring. (53 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Commitment to future interaction in marketing transactions.

Studied the effects of commitment to future bargaining in 40 male undergraduate dyads. Ss were randomly assigned to a 2 (bargaining or nonbargaining) * 2 (same person or different person) * 2 (seller or buyer) factorial design and participated in a simulated automobile-trading task, knowing only their own profits on which experimental compensation was based. Results indicate that commitment to future bargaining was associated with more extreme initial bids and, for dyads, less equitable bargaining outcomes. Expectation of future interaction with the same person was associated with lower minimum acceptable profits for Ss, while dyads expecting future interaction together reached more equitable bargaining outcomes. The extent and nature of anticipated future interactions influenced marketing transactions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of performance expectancy and self-focused attention on social interaction.

Investigated the impact of performance expectancies and self-focused attention on social performance in mixed-sex dyads of 48 undergraduate men with self-reported moderate social anxiety on a modified Social Avoidance and Distress Scale. Ss were divided into 2 groups on the basis of their high or low performance expectancies. Ss were asked to respond to several self-report questionnaires before and after making a telephone call lasting 4–5 min to a female confederate for the purpose of getting acquainted. Results show that half of the Ss in each expectancy group performed in the presence of a self-focusing stimulus (video-camera). When anxiety level was controlled for, focus of attention alone had a very limited effect on performance. Expectancy had a significant influence on social performance, but only if Ss were self-focused. Thus confident Ss were rated by judges as more socially skilled than were doubtful Ss, but only when the camera was present. The interaction between these variables parallels previous research by C. S. Carver et al (see record 1980-32489-001) and Carver and M. F. Scheier (see record 1980-25774-001) and supports the self-regulation model of Carver and Scheier (1983). (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex and ethnic differences in the use of power.

Hypothesized that women and Chicanos would make less internal and more external attributions for their own successful performance than would Anglo males. 40 Chicano male, 40 Chicano female, 40 Anglo male, and 40 Anglo female undergraduates participated as managers in an industrial simulation study. Ss were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 experimental conditions: designated powers vs unspecified powers, and supervision of male or female workers. Following the managerial task, Ss completed a questionnaire assessing their own performance and that of their workers. All Anglos devalued their workers as a function of controlling power and attributed workers' performance to external factors. All Ss tended to use their power to persuade workers. Males attempted to influence workers to a greater degree than did females. The predicted sex differences in terms of attribution were evident only among Anglos. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in interaction style as a product of perceived sex differences in competence.

Observed the interaction styles of 72 male and 72 female university students while they worked in 4-person, mixed-sex groups on a discussion task. In some groups, Ss were only given information about each other's names and gender. In this circumstance, males were perceived by themselves and other group members to be higher in competence than females. Males also engaged in a greater amount of active task behavior than females, who exhibited a greater amount of positive social behavior than males. In other groups, Ss' competency-based status was manipulated by providing false feedback that they were high or low relative to their group in intellectual and moral aptitude. High-status Ss were then perceived to be more competent and engaged in more active task and less positive social behavior than low status ones. In this condition, no sex differences were obtained on perceived competence or on active task or positive social behavior. Findings support the idea that the gender differences obtained in interaction when status was not specified were partially a function of Ss' belief that the sexes differ in competence. (43 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Interactive effects of sex and status on self-disclosure.

Rated the degree of self-disclosure of 40 male and 40 female undergraduates in interviews with either male or female interviewers of high or low status. A 2 * 2 * 2 analysis of variance revealed that (a) males disclosed more to females, while females disclosed more to males; (b) dyads containing a female resulted in more disclosure than all male dyads; (c) males revealed more to high-status interviewers, while females disclosed more to low-status interviewers; and (d) high- as opposed to low-status male interviewers elicited more disclosure from all Ss, while status of female interviewers resulted in no significant differences. The need for use of multiple measures in self-disclosure research and implications for client-therapist matching is noted. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychological distance in the family as schematized by families of normal, disturbed, and learning-problem children.

Used a family doll placement technique to study psychological distance within 30 families with a disturbed and a nondisturbed boy. The father, mother, and 2 children each did the task individually, and then as a family group. Families were divided into 3 groups of 10 in which the S was (a) normal, (b) emotionally disturbed, or (c) had serious learning problems. Psychological distance was measured by the actual distance placed between doll dyads. As hypothesized, both groups of disturbed Ss placed greater distance between the mother doll and the doll representing himself than normal Ss in negative story themes. Unexpectedly, female siblings of disturbed Ss placed greater distance between the father doll and the doll representing herself than female siblings of normal Ss in negative story themes. These differences also appeared when the family group did the task. Teacher ratings showed the disturbed Ss to be more interpersonally distant and dependent than the normal Ss. (23 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Behavior in groups as a function of self-interaction, and task orientation.

To further the theoretical expectation that orientation would be associated with leadership and related group behavior, the Bass Orientation Inventory was correlated with rated performance in sensitivity training groups of 32 male supervisors and 25 female secretaries, in groups of 48 candidates for supervisory positions undergoing 3 days of assessment, and in reformed groups homogeneous in orientation. Task oriented Ss, particularly among men, were judged most favorably and interaction oriented Ss least favorably both by peers and outside assessors. However, homogeneous groupings for sensitivity training were most satisfying to interaction oriented Ss, whose leaders were most highly interaction oriented. Task oriented group leaders were highly task oriented, but leaders of self-oriented groups were relatively low in self-orientation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Affect, sex guilt, gender, and the rewarding-punishing effects of erotic stimuli.

40 male and 40 female college students were classified as high or low in sex guilt (HSG and LSG, respectively) using the Mosher Forced-Choice Guilt Inventory. Experimental Ss were shown erotic slides following each "correct" choice in a discrimination task and nonerotic slides following each "incorrect" choice. Controls were shown nonerotic slides following all choices. HSG Ss made fewer choice responses leading to erotica than did LSG Ss, and females made fewer erotica-producing choices than did males. HSG and female Ss were less positive in their affective reactions to the erotica than were LSG and male Ss. Correlational and regression analyses revealed that sex guilt and gender differences in choice behaviors leading to erotica were predicted solely on individual differences in intensity of positive affective responses. Regardless of sex guilt and gender, for those high in positive affect, the erotic stimuli functioned as rewards, but for those low in positive affect, the stimuli functioned as punishers. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cardiovascular and testosterone responses to contested dominance in women.

Examined cardiovascular and testosterone responses of 10 dominant and 10 submissive female undergraduates to an acute stressor involving contested dominance. Ss rated their dominance to a predefined reference group, participated in a task that involved debating with a trained technician, and were continuously provided with bogus feedback throughout the task concerning biochemical substances in their blood that purportedly covaried with dominance. Dominant Ss were much more reactive to the stressor in several cardiovascular parameters than submissive Ss. Serum testosterone did not vary as a function of the experimental manipulation, and at each measurement point, dominant and submissive Ss had essentially identical serum levels of this hormone. Baseline testosterone for dominant Ss was related to changes in systolic blood pressure. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)