Depression and causal attributions for success and failure.

Investigated the effects of depression on causal attributions for success and failure. From a pool of 340 female university students, 60 were separated into depressed and nondepressed groups on the basis of Costello-Comrey Depression Scale scores, and then received either 20, 55, or 80% reinforcement on a word association task. Following the task, attributions were made for outcome using the 4 factors of effort, ability, task difficulty, and luck. In accord with predictions generated from a self-serving biases hypothesis, nondepressives made internal (ability, effort) attributions for a successful outcome (80% reinforcement) and external attributions (luck, task difficulty) for a failure outcome (20% reinforcement). As predicted from consideration of the self-blame component of depression, the attributions made by depressives for a failure outcome were personal or internal. Contrary to expectations, depressives also made internal attributions for a successful outcome. The findings for depressives are discussed in relation to the recently revised learned helplessness model of depression, which incorporates causal attributions. For nondepressives, the findings are considered in terms of the self-serving biases hypothesis. (39 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's attributions for failure and success in different aspects of reading.

Investigated the attributions of 82 3rd graders and 82 6th graders for their success and failure in different reading situations with an extended set of causes (as a function of age and achievement differences). Ss were split into good and poor readers on the basis of a median split on the Reading Comprehension subtest of the California Test of Basic Skills. Ss reading achievement was then assessed in 2 reading situations (evaluation of reading performance and reading for meaning). Ss were asked to rate the degree to which each of 6 causes (ability, paying attention, studying, luck, task difficulty, and assistance from others) was responsible for their success or failure. Findings show that 6th graders' locus of control scores varied across situations, while 3rd graders' scores did not. Studying and paying attention were salient to Ss as causes. Age and achievement interacted, with low-achieving 3rd graders giving higher ratings to causes more clearly beyond their control than high-achieving 3rd graders, whereas low- and high-achieving 6th graders did not differ. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Consistency of pupils' attributions regarding success and failure.

191 6th graders attending schools in 3 socioeconomic areas were asked to attribute to causes their success or failure on examinations administered in 3 subjects in the course of a trimester. The extent of consistency was measured between attributional patterns obtained from 2 tests in the same subject and between two tests in different subjects. Results show consistency in Ss' attributional patterns. It was found that consistency of attributional patterns was significantly greater when Ss received the same outcomes on the 2 tests (success or failure) than when different outcomes were received (success–failure or failure–success). (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's causal attributions for success and failure in achievement settings: A meta-analysis.

Conducted a meta-analysis of 25 studies (1972–1981 [appended]) on children's attributions for success and failure to test the adequacy of the egotistic bias hypothesis (that attributions are more internal for success and more external for failure) for children in Grades 1–7. Variations in the wording of attributional questions and the research context were also included as factors in the meta-analysis. Results provide support for the egotism hypothesis and indicate that both question wording and research context are important determinants of children's attributions. In general, the egotism effect was supported more for informational than for the more traditional causal wording of the attribution questions. No effects were found for grade level. (47 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Casual attributions for success and failure for psychiatric rehabilitees and college students

College students and psychiatric rehabilitees performed a manual dexterity task in which consistent success or failure was maipulated over four consecutive task trials. Contrasting predictions for the use of casual attributions (luck, task difficulty, effort, and ability) following Trial 1 and Trial 4 for the two populations were derived from Heider's balance theory and "naive theory of action". Consistent with native theory, students who succeeded and rehabilitees who succeeded used unstable attributions only college students who failed used stable attributions to account for these trial outcomes, whereas students who failed and rehabilitees who failed made significant changes in their attributional patterns from Trial 1 to Trial 4. Results are discussed regarding intervention with psychiatric rehabilitees and other groups with severe achievement difficulties.     

Children's attributions for success and failure: Effects of age and attentional focus.

This study was an assessment of how children's achievement attributions were influenced by their age, attentional focus, gender, and success or failure experience. Older and younger elementary school children performed a memory task under either self-focusing or task-focusing instructions. After performance, half of the children in each condition were given success feedback and the other half failure feedback. Attributions for performance were then obtained. In the success condition, children judged effort to be the most important cause of their performance, whereas children in the failure condition attributed their performance mostly to the difficulty of the task and their inability to remember the story. Older children in the self-focus condition attributed success more to internal causes than did older children in the task-focus condition. Younger children attributed both success and failure more to luck than did older children. Few sex differences in attributions were obtained. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Impact of causal attributions on affective reactions to success and failure.

Assessed the impact of outcome (success vs failure) and attribution (internal vs external) on affect in an achievement setting. Following the theorizing of B. Weiner et al (1978, 1979), it was anticipated that the outcome manipulation would determine general positive and negative affective reactions, whereas the attribution manipulation would influence affects related to self-esteem. 53 female undergraduates received success or failure feedback on a social accuracy test and were induced to attribute their performance to either an internal (ability) or an external cause (characteristics of the task). A factor analysis revealed 3 dimensions: Negative Affect, Positive Affect, and Self-Esteem. ANOVA indicated that the nature of the attribution influenced all 3 forms of affective reactions. Success produced greater positive affect, less negative affect, and higher self-esteem than failure only when ability attributions were induced. Although additional analyses offered some support for the presence of affects influenced solely by outcome, the majority of analyses supported the notion that attributions are the primary determinants of affective reactions to success and failure. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development of perception of own attainment and causal attributions for success and failure in reading.

Previous research has shown causal attributions for observed performance become more logical with age. This study with 540 2nd-, 4th-, 6th-, and 8th-grade pupils showed similar age trends in children's explanations of their own academic successes and failures. Most important, ability attributions for success and failure in reading were more effectively predicted by reading attainment in older than in younger Ss. Perception of own attainment was also appreciably more accurate in older Ss. These findings lead to the prediction that motivation will be more related to attainment in older than in younger children. The present attributional analysis, unlike self-concept-based analyses of age changes, acknowledges the effects of cognitive maturity as well as history of attainment. Sex differences of interest are noted. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Expectations, aspirations, and evaluations as influenced by another's attributions for success and failure.

A study with 80 male and female students aged 16–18 yrs examined the effects of another's attributions for performance on one's own expectations, aspirations, and evaluations of performance. Ss witnessed an other (O) who had attributed his (or her) performance (successful or unsuccessful) on an anagram task to luck, task ease or difficulty, effort, or ability. When O had succeeded, Ss expected to perform best if O had attributed his success to the task (rather than to luck, effort, or ability); when O had failed, Ss expected to perform worst when O had attributed his failure to the task. In addition, Ss witnessing a successful O were more hopeful if O had made a task attribution, but Ss witnessing an unsuccessful O were more hopeful if O had made an effort attribution. Finally, Ss showed a tendency to attribute their own performance to the same cause to which O had attributed his own performance. Results are discussed in relation to the stability–instability and internal–external dimensions of causal attributions and to the need to perceive oneself as exercising effective control over the environment. (French summary) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Causal attributions, causal dimensions, and affective reactions to success and failure.

Evaluated, in 2 studies, which of 3 theoretical models best describes the interrelations of causal attributions, causal dimensions, and affective reactions to success and failure. Study 1 used an experimental methodology requiring 99 undergraduates to imagine themselves in different achievement situations, whereas Study 2 involved the investigation of the affective reactions of 161 undergraduates to performance on a midterm examination. Results indicate that causal attributions and causal dimensions had joint and independent effects on affective reactions to success and failure. Implications for a theoretical model of the relation between attribution processes and affect are discussed. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Measuring causal attributions for success and failure: A comparison of methodologies for assessing causal dimensions.

This study evaluated the reliability and validity of three commonly used procedures for assessing the dimensional properties of causal attributions for success and failure. These methods of assessment were based on open-ended attributions for performance, importance ratings of different causes of success and failure, and the attributor's perception of his or her causal attribution for performance as assessed by the Causal Dimension Scale. Data were collected on causal attributions, expected and actual performance, subjective evaluations of performance, and affective reactions from a group of students before and after their midterm examination. Analyses were conducted to evaluate the reliability, convergent and discriminant validity, and construct validity of the attribution measures. The results generally supported the use of the Causal Dimension Scale over the other methods of assessing causal dimensions. Implications of these findings for attribution research and possible improvements in the Causal Dimension Scale are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Affect-generating powers of effort and ability self attributions of academic success and failure.

Studied (a) the affect productivity of effort and (b) the ability self-attributions of success or failure. Three experiments collectively involving 315 college students were run wherein Ss had to indicate for either hypothetical academic success or failure the effort–ability attribution that would generate in them the greatest affect. Relative to those in effort, attributions to ability generated as much happiness, but less pride, in the case of success and more unhappiness, but less shame, in the case of failure. It is concluded that ability attributions have a greater affective impact when morally neutral affects (e.g., happiness and unhappiness), as opposed to morally unneutral affects (e.g., pride and shame), are involved. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychoeducational consultations with parents of conduct-disordered older adolescents.

This paper presents an approach to treatment of conduct-disordered behavior in older adolescents. The nature of the dysfunctional personality traits of the patient is discussed at length as are the possible roles of the parents and organic factors in both the etiology and maintenance of the disorder. As most of these adolescents are antagonistic to both traditional individual and family-based approaches, an alternative method is outlined which emphasizes an extensive psychoeducational consultation process with the parents as the main focus of treatment. Two types of dysfunctional parental patterns are considered: the over-involved parents and the underinvolved parents, and the nature of the consultation process with both groups is illustrated. The possible beneficial effects of the work are discussed both for the parents and the adolescent patient. Potential pitfalls and particular subtleties of the process are detailed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development of causal attributions and evaluative responses to success and failure in Maori and Pakeha children.

Studied ethnic differences in causal attributions for and evaluative reactions to academic success and failure. School experience seemed likely to reduce such differences. Results confirming these expectations were obtained with 7–23 yr olds of 2 New Zealand ethnic groups (Maoris and Pakehas). Ethnic differences in 7-yr-olds suggested weaker academic motivation in Maoris but generally did not support a cultural deficit or retardation interpretation. The stereotype of Maoris as less able than Pakehas appeared to influence the responses of children of both ethnic groups. (4 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of math self-concept, perceived self-efficacy, and attributions for failure and success on test anxiety.

Structural equation modeling was used to test a model of test anxiety. Variables in the model included gender, number of years since one's last math course, attributions for failure and success, math self-concept, perceived self-efficacy, achievement, general test anxiety, and statistical test anxiety. Failure and success attributions were found to influence general test anxiety and statistical test anxiety for both male and female students. Women who attributed success to behavioral causes were found to have higher levels of math self-concept than women attributing success to external causes. For men, those attributing failure to external causes were found to have higher levels of the worry component of statistical test anxiety. Math self-concept was negatively related to both general test anxiety and statistics test anxiety, whereas perceived self-efficacy had a negative relationship with the worry component of statistics anxiety. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

School psychologists' participation in organization development: Prerequisite considerations.

Argues that organization development is increasingly recognized as an appropriate function for the school psychology specialty as a whole. It is suggested, however, that prior to introducing organization development in a particular school district, several considerations are appropriate. These prerequisite considerations include (a) resources needed for organization-development programs, (b) school readiness criteria for organization-development programs, (c) interventions available for schools lacking readiness, and (d) factors unique to the individual school psychologist. Particular attention is given to a continuum of school practice ranging from provision of specific organization-development interventions through sustained organization-development programs. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

School psychologists' personalities: Award winners contrasted with a random sample.

A random sample of 50 California school psychologists and 64 award-winning school psychologists completed the California Personality Inventory. Award winners were little different from the random sample except on folk scores related to leadership. School psychologists' scores indicated above average adjustment and mental health. A large number of both award-winning and randomly sampled school psychologists were norm-favoring and extraverted. Results were discussed in relation to current issues in the field. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attractiveness and corporate success: Different causal attributions for males and females.

113 working men and women were presented with the work history of an assistant vice president (AVP) of a midsized corporation who was either an attractive or unattractive male or female. Additionally, the AVP's rise to the senior ranks was depicted as either unusually rapid or normative in pace. Ss read the material and answered an attributional questionnaire. Results indicate that, as predicted, attractiveness had different effects on the degree to which the AVP's success was attributed to ability depending on whether the AVP was male or female: Males' ability attributions were enhanced and females' ability attributions were detrimentally affected by their good looks. Also as expected, capability judgments followed a similar pattern. Appearance was additionally shown to have different consequences for males and females when likeability and interpersonal integrity were rated. However, contrary to predictions, the rapidity of corporate ascent did not interact with appearance or sex in affecting attributions about or impressions of the stimulus AVPs. Conceptual and practical implications are discussed. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

School psychologists' acceptability of behavioral and traditional assessment procedures for externalizing problem behaviors.

A national survey of school psychologists' acceptability of psychological assessment techniques in the area of externalizing problem behaviors was examined. School psychologists' ratings of 2 procedures, Behavioral Assessment (BA) and Traditional Assessment (TA), were compared using an analog case study methodology. Using a random sample of 500 National Association of School Psychologists members from the 1991–1992 membership directory, 339 Ss completed the Assessment Rating Profile after reading a hypothetical case summary describing a student with suspected externalizing problem behaviors. Results indicated statistically significant differences between assessment methods and ratings of acceptability. BA procedures were found to be more acceptable than TA procedures. Implications related to the acceptability of psychological assessment techniques, as well as implications for school psychology practitioners are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)