An examination of the role of flaw size and material toughness in the brittle fracture of polyethylene pipes

At low temperatures and hoop stresses, polyethylene pipes fail by the time-dependent propagation of a crack. These brittle, fissure-like failures have been observed to initiate from adventitious flaws, and the concepts and methods of fracture mechanics indicate that flaw size should determine stress rupture lifetime. A number of controlled model experiments have therefore been undertaken to assess the influence of flaw size and material toughness on the stress rupture lifetimes of polyethylene pipes. To two different pipe grade polyethylene resins (one shorter, one longer lifetime resin) flaws of varying sizes have been added. For the shorter lifetime resin small flaws were, in addition, purposely excluded by the use of fine melt filtration techniques. Pipes containing added flaws or pipes where flaws were excluded were then stress rupture tested under those conditions designed to induce brittle failure by slow crack growth. The stress rupture lifetimes of the various pipes are then correlated with flaw size. The results of the tests using the shorter lifetime resin show that flaw size does have a significant influence. It is particularly interesting to note that melt filtration, which removes large inherent flaws, substantially improved the stress rupture lifetime. With respect to material toughness, the longer lifetime pipe grade polyethylene resin showed a healthy tolerance to included flaws. In respect of the stress rupture test preferred resins can therefore be identified in terms of their tolerance to included flaws.     

Some observations on the strength and fatigue properties of samples extracted from cast iron water mains

The strength and fatigue properties of cast iron samples taken from water distribution mains have been investigated. Specimens were sourced from three sections of pipe which had experienced varying amounts of corrosion in service, enabling the variable of pipe condition to be incorporated within the study.
The strengths in four-point flexure of small specimens from the pipes examined were described using Weibull statistics; different characteristic strengths and Weibull moduli were obtained, according to the pipe condition. A further set of samples from each pipe were subjected to flexural fatigue at a range of stress levels (different stress levels were chosen for each pipe based on the short-term strength properties) and residual strength tests were carried out on the surviving samples from one stress level for each pipe. There is evidence of a fatigue effect for all sample sets. There were slight differences in the residual strength behaviour – the residual strength of the survivors was reduced in the samples from the section in best condition while the residual strength of the survivors from the other two pipe sections was relatively unaffected. These trends are discussed with reference to condition and fatigue stress level.
The results suggest that mechanical fatigue may be a factor in the failure of water distribution pipes. The results may have implications for large diameter trunk mains as well as the small diameter water distribution pipes tested here. To assess the effect in more detail, consideration needs to be given to scaling effects in fatigue and the likely levels of any fatigue stress seen in service.     

Structural integrity analysis of HDPE pipes for water supplying network

A problem of reliability of polymer pipes manufactured with the high‐density polyethylene (HDPE) for drinking water supply was considered. The safety of the pipelines network was analyzed with taking into account two main factors: arising of sudden overpressure (water hammer phenomenon) and presence of defects on pipe surface. Based on elastoplastic fracture mechanics and using of J‐integral approach, the numerical model of cracked pipe was developed and verified by direct experimental test. The formula for calculation of crack initiation pressure, which is the function of pipe size and size of external surface defect, was derived. The validity of this relation was proved for pipes of diameter 450 to 800 mm. It was also shown that the pressure peaks of the water hammer phenomenon are quickly damped because of the high deformability of the polyethylene pipes and the defect depth that is equivalent to 40% of pipe wall thickness can be considered as acceptable. The applicability of developed tools was demonstrated under analysis in the real state of South Tunisian water supply network.     

Fracture toughness of multilayer pipes

Multilayer pipes composed of various materials improve partially the properties of a pipe system and are frequently used in service. To estimate the lifetime of these pipes the basic fracture parameters have to be measured. In the contribution a new approach to this estimation is presented. Special type of a C-shaped inhomogeneous fracture mechanics specimen machined directly from a pipe has been proposed, numerically analyzed and tested. The corresponding K values are calculated by finite-element method and fracture toughness values of polyethylene pipes material are obtained. __________ Translated from Problemy Prochnosti, No. 1, pp. 146–149, January–February, 2008.     

Correlation of fatigue crack propagation in polyethylene pipe specimens of different geometries

Correlation in mechanisms and kinetics of step-wise fatigue crack propagation in polyethylene pipe specimens of different geometries is studied experimentally. It is shown that crack propagation in a non-standard specimen cut from a real pipe and conserving the pipe geometry can be effectively simulated using a standard compact tension specimen. Good correlation in both kinetics of step-wise crack propagation and fractography between the specimens is achieved if experimental conditions are chosen to assure equal values of (a) stress intensity factor and (b) stress intensity factor gradient at the initial notch tips. These results extend previous technique of fatigue accelerating slow crack growth used to predict lifetime of polyethylene pipes. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Failure analysis of a PVC sewer pipeline by fractography and materials characterization

Sewer rising mains are an integral part of wastewater network and convey sewage under pressure between gravity fed systems or from gravity systems to treatment plants. The failure of a rising main can result in significant volumes of sewage being discharged to sensitive environments, significant clean-up costs and severe indirect consequences being incurred.This paper describes the analysis of an Unplasticised Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC-U) pressure sewer (sewer rising main), nominal diameter 200 mm, pressure class 12, that failed prematurely after 34 years of service considering the design life of >100 years. It was hypothesised that the root cause of pipe failure was either material degradation from exposure to an aggressive environment (the conveyed sewage) or an inherent defect in the pipe. To test this hypothesis, a thorough visual examination of the exhumed failed section and the fracture surface was undertaken, followed by Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy, micro-scale examination of the fracture surface using Scanning Electron Microscopy and Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectrometry. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy showed no evidence of material degradation due to contact with sewage. Visual and micro-scale examination revealed that failure occurred in two major stages initiated at an inherent defect (foreign inclusion) in the pipe wall that was attributed to the original manufacture. In addition to the initiating defect in the pipe wall, numerous other potential stress risers were also identified. The application of an established crack growth model predicted pipe failure close to the observed lifetime. Application of the staged methodology presented is recommended to establish relationships between manufacturing eras of PVC pipes and severity of inherent defects.     

A physical probabilistic model to predict failure rates in buried PVC pipelines

For older water pipeline materials such as cast iron and asbestos cement, future pipe failure rates can be extrapolated from large volumes of existing historical failure data held by water utilities. However, for newer pipeline materials such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC), only limited failure data exists and confident forecasts of future pipe failures cannot be made from historical data alone. To solve this problem, this paper presents a physical probabilistic model, which has been developed to estimate failure rates in buried PVC pipelines as they age. The model assumes that under in-service operating conditions, crack initiation can occur from inherent defects located in the pipe wall. Linear elastic fracture mechanics theory is used to predict the time to brittle fracture for pipes with internal defects subjected to combined internal pressure and soil deflection loading together with through-wall residual stress. To include uncertainty in the failure process, inherent defect size is treated as a stochastic variable, and modelled with an appropriate probability distribution. Microscopic examination of fracture surfaces from field failures in Australian PVC pipes suggests that the 2-parameter Weibull distribution can be applied. Monte Carlo simulation is then used to estimate lifetime probability distributions for pipes with internal defects, subjected to typical operating conditions. As with inherent defect size, the 2-parameter Weibull distribution is shown to be appropriate to model uncertainty in predicted pipe lifetime. The Weibull hazard function for pipe lifetime is then used to estimate the expected failure rate (per pipe length/per year) as a function of pipe age. To validate the model, predicted failure rates are compared to aggregated failure data from 17 UK water utilities obtained from the United Kingdom Water Industry Research (UKWIR) National Mains Failure Database. In the absence of actual operating pressure data in the UKWIR database, typical values from Australian water utilities were assumed to apply. While the physical probabilistic failure model shows good agreement with data recorded by UK water utilities, actual operating pressures from the UK is required to complete the model validation.     

A numerical methodology for lifetime estimation of HDPE pressure pipes

Using linear elastic fracture mechanics a new methodology for a lifetime assessment of internally pressurized polymer pipes was developed. The concept is based on the numerical calculation of stress intensity factors for pipes under different loading conditions in combination with experimentally determined creep crack growth kinetics. Comparison of simulated lifetimes with experimental data from tests of internally pressurized pipes proved the principal applicability of the concept suggested. Major parameters affecting the pipe lifetime are identified and discussed. Combination of the creep crack growth tests and numerical simulations can be a very powerful tool for lifetime estimation of plastic pipes under different loading conditions.     

Life extension technology for steam pipe systems—II. Development of life prediction methodology

Part II of this paper addresses the development of a fracture mechanics based life prediction methodology of steam pipes which operate at elevated temperatures but in the sub-creep temperature range. Elastic-plastic fracture mechanics concepts were employed to establish the remaining life prediction methodology and inspection criteria of steam pipes. Leak-before-break analyses were utilized to determine the flaw inspection criteria. Both tension and bending type loading conditions were considered in the life prediction analysis. The life assessment technology is concerned with the fatigue crack growth life of circumferential cracks in a pipe. The material properties of the A106B steam pipe steel reported in Part I of this paper were used to predict the fatigue life of steam pipes. The effects of operating parameters (e.g. stress and temperature), pipe size, and material properties on the remaining life and inspection intervals of steam pipes can be quantitatively evaluated.     

A fracture mechanics concept for the accelerated characterization of creep crack growth in PE-HD pipe grades

For the lifetime prediction of pressurized polyethylene (PE) pipes based on methods of the linear elastic fracture mechanics the knowledge of the crack resistance and the kinetics of creep crack growth (CCG) is essential. In the present work a rather brittle nonpipe material was used to develop a methodology for an accelerated measurement of crack kinetics in fatigue tests on cracked round bar (CRB) specimens at ambient temperatures of 23 °C. A material and specimen specific compliance calibration curve was generated to detect the crack kinetics with only one single CRB test. Based on an already proposed concept the kinetics at different R-ratios (minimum/maximum load) was measured and extrapolated to the case of CCG. To demonstrate the transferability of this concept to pipe materials a PE 80 pipe grade was used. Although the necessary testing time increased considerably the concept still has the potential to reduce the overall testing time for new pipe materials to be certified significantly. With the presented procedure a characterization of CCG in modern PE pipe grades at room temperature and without the use of stress cracking liquids is possible within a few months.     

建筑隔震橡胶柔性管道抗震性能试验研究

橡胶柔性管道在隔震建筑中逐渐得到应用，其震后能否正常工作会直接影响建筑的使用功能。该文选取竖向安装的橡胶柔性管道作为研究对象，变形位移需求为400 mm，考虑2种公称内径和4种管道设计长度影响，进行了抗震性能试验，对比分析了该类管道的地震损伤演化模式、变形和承载能力特征。试验结果表明:设计长度较小的管道均无法满足预期变形目标，经历管道绷直以及单侧断裂破坏两个关键状态，震后必须更换；对于设计长度符合规范建议的管道，则可以满足变形需求；回归分析获得了管道公称内径和设计长度与其水平变形能力之间的量化关系；管道设计长度相同时，管道公称内径与其破坏时的水平极限荷载呈正相关关系，但大公称内径和小公称内径管道的极限水平荷载之比小于公称内径比。     

新型钻杆的携岩原理研究与数值仿真分析

随着川渝地区的钻井深度不断增大,管柱在下入过程中易受到井内岩屑的影响,进而出现卡钻现象,甚至发生钻具断裂等重大事故。为了提高川渝地区页岩气水平井内的岩屑运移能力,设计了2种新型钻杆——悬浮式铝合金钻杆和新型脉冲射流钻杆,并与普通钻杆进行对比分析。首先,对3种钻杆的结构与携岩原理进行理论分析。然后,在ANSYS软件中建立3种钻杆的携岩仿真模型,通过采用不同的网格划分方法来验证各仿真模型的网格无关性与收敛性,并利用搭建的室内岩屑运移装置验证了仿真模型的准确性。最后,在岩屑粒径、钻井液入口排量和井斜角等因素改变的情况下,对3种钻杆的携岩能力进行了仿真分析。结果表明,悬浮式铝合金钻杆和新型脉冲射流钻杆的携岩能力相比普通钻杆有所提高。研究结果对提高水平井内的岩屑运移速度、改善井眼清洁度和减少岩屑床生成具有重要意义。     

反应器分布器分布管断裂分析

对断裂反应器的分布管进行宏观、金相微观组织、化学成分分析、硬度检验、相结构分析和断口分析。结果表明,在分布器的工况条件下,分布管外表面氧化腐蚀,导致表面晶界氧化裂纹萌生;管内介质NH3分解导致内壁渗氮,生成氮化物材质脆化;在震动作用下,由管外壁起裂,导致失效。     

Study of polyethylene pipe resins by a fatigue test that simulates crack propagation in a real pipe

A fatigue test that simulates the step-wise crack propagation found in pipes in the field, and uses a standard compact-tension specimen, was employed to study and rank crack resistance of various pipe resins. The thermal history during compression moulding of the test specimens strongly affected fracture kinetics. It was found that crack-resistant properties of in-service pipe were best reproduced if compression-moulded plaques were fast cooled under load. This procedure was used to prepare specimens from candidate pipe resins for fatigue testing. The resins were compared in terms of discontinuous crack growth kinetics. The ranking based on resistance to fatigue crack propagation correlated with results of a standard PENT creep test. However, fatigue failure times were an order of magnitude less than the standard creep times. After comparing the initiation and failure times of the resins with detailed kinetics of step-wisse crack propagation, a simplified and rapid procedure is proposed which calls for evaluating only the first jump after initiation.     

Fractographic study of high-density polyethylene pipe

High-density polyethylene (HDPE) pipe is now being used as an alternative to medium-density polyethylene (MDPE) for gas, water, sewage and waste-water distribution systems. Laboratory tests appear to show that HDPE is more able to suppress rapid crack propagation (RCP), whilst remaining sufficient resistance under the operational circumstances that lead to the type of slow crack growth observed in service failures. There have been many fractographic studies on MDPE pipe materials, actual pipe and fittings, but little on HDPE. A fractographic study of the type of HDPE pipe in current production has been undertaken. For these tests, whole pipe sections were subjected to either static or dynamic internal (water) pressurization fatigue loading. Failure mechanisms are discussed based on the fracture morphologies resulting from these tests. A further argument for good resistance of HDPE pipe to RCP is suggested. © 1998 Chapman & Hall     

Finite volume method and multigrid acceleration in modelling of rapid crack propagation in full-scale pipe test

Rapid Crack Propagation (RCP) along pressurised plastic pipes is by far the most dangerous pipe failure mode. Despite the economic benefits offered by increasing pipe size and operating pressure, both strategies increase the risk and the potential consequences of RCP. It is therefore extremely important to account for RCP in establishing the safe operational conditions. Combined experimental-numerical study is the only reliable approach of addressing the problem, and extensive research is undertaken by various fracture groups (e.g. Southwest Research Institute – USA, Imperial College – UK). This paper presents numerical results from finite volume modelling of full-scale test on medium density polyethylene gas pressurised pipes. The crack speed and pressure profile are prescribed in the analysis. Both steady-state and transient RCPs are considered, and the comparison between the two shown. The steady-state results are efficiently achieved employing a full multigrid acceleration technique, where sets of progressively finer grids are used in V-cycles. Also, the effect of inelastic behaviour of polyethylene on RCP results is demonstrated.     

Fatigue behavior of surface cracked filament wound pipes with high tangential strength in corrosive environment

The aim of this study is to examine the corrosion fatigue behavior of filament wound composite pipes with a surface crack under alternating internal pressure. The filament wound pipes are composed of multi-layered E-glass/epoxy composites with a [±75°]₃ lay-up. The surface notches were formed on the outer surface of the pipe along the pipe axis. Dilute (0.6 M) HCl acid was applied to the surface crack region by a corrosion cell mounted on the outer surface of the pipe. The results of an experimental investigation into the corrosion fatigue tests are conducted to observe the oil leakage failure and the crack propagation of the composite pipe subjected internal pressure loading with an open ended condition in which the pipe can be deformed freely in the axial direction. The internal pressure was generated by conventional hydraulic oil for fatigue loading. The fatigue tests are performed at 0.42 Hz frequency and a stress ratio of R = 0.05 in accordance with ASTM D-2992 standard. The oil leakage from the crack tip was observed after the crack propagation reached to the critical stress intensity level. The fatigue crack propagation behavior with the environment exposure was strongly dependent on the crack parameters such as crack-depth ratio and crack-aspect ratio. The micro structure of the fracture surface with the effect of environment and the fatigue loading were also observed.     

Investigation of low temperature effects on fatigue behavior of PVDF

Fatigue behavior of polyvinylidiene fluoride (PVDF) pipes is investigated under low temperatures to characterize the temperature effects. The analysis included experimental evaluation of fatigue life for test samples taken directly from the manufactured pipes used for service as opposed to compression molded compact tension samples used in previous works. In this test, short sections from an extruded pipe are used to better represent the material service conditions. A compact test chamber was designed to control the test temperature. The samples were loaded into the test rig and allowed to cool for 30 min ensuring a constant and even temperature distribution. Cooling was done in a sealed test chamber using carbon dioxide gas. Two test temperatures of −20 °C and −10 °C were chosen since they represent typical temperature during which failure occurs during actual pipe service in cold environments. Fractured surfaces were inspected and fatigue data were analyzed using a standard procedure for calculation of fatigue life with a semi-elliptical surface crack assumption was performed; from which parameters of the Paris law for fatigue fracture were obtained. Comparing the results with previous works it is found that they capture the trend of the PVDF material behavior for high temperature.     

Weibull analysis, extrapolations and implications for condition assessment of cast iron water mains

The applicability of Weibull statistics to the condition assessment of cast iron water distribution pipes has been considered. The effect of Weibull modulus, characteristic strength, sample size and mode of loading (tension or flexure) on the strength of cast iron water distribution pipes is investigated. The strength distribution of cast iron samples cut from sections of five different water distribution pipes recovered from the ground have been characterized. Strengths have been measured in flexure, at two different temperatures (ambient and 0 °C), and in tension at ambient temperature using two different sample sizes. It is shown that characteristic strength values in flexure decrease with increasing size of graphite flake and that there is no significant difference between the results at the two temperatures investigated. For samples of the same volume tested in tension and flexure, the reduced strength measured in tension is consistent with Weibull predictions. However, the strength of large samples tested in tension was not significantly different from the small samples, perhaps because the samples were of the same thickness and conventional Weibull scaling is not applicable. Finally, using a method which treats a large pipe as an assembly of small samples, the strength distributions from the small samples tested in tension are used to make a prediction of the strengths of 1 m span sections of pipe loaded in three‐point bending, which were reported in previous work. The predicted pipe strengths are close to the lower end of the measured pipe strength distribution. Overall, this work suggests that Weibull analysis is a useful tool to examine the strength distribution of removed from cast iron water pipes and so has the potential to contribute in the assessment of asset condition.     

锅炉对流管胀管接头开裂失效分析

通过宏观检验、化学成分分析、扫描电镜断口分析、金相检验以及力学性能测试等方法,对某糖厂锅炉对流管胀管接头的开裂失效原因进行了分析。结果表明:对流管胀管接头开裂主要是由于锅炉在频繁快速启、停过程中,悬吊下锅筒的对流管反复膨胀、回复,导致对流管在受应力集中及弯曲应力作用最大的胀管接头处产生热疲劳裂纹,裂纹沿晶扩展导致胀管接头脆性开裂。