Remote memory: Recalling autobiographical and public events from across the lifespan.

Examined the recall of autobiographical (ATB) and public events across the lifespan among 24 middle-aged (40–55 yrs old) and 24 older (aged 65–75 yrs) individuals. Ss were asked to recall events from specific time periods across their lifespan. The 4 tasks differed in their nature of the episodes requested (ATB or public) and whether recall was word-cued or nonword-cued. Verification of public events was assessed archivally, while ATB events were verified by relatives of a subgroup of the Ss and reported events. Memory for public events decreased with increased age of Ss, but this effect generally did not occur for the recall of ATB events. Older Ss recalled an equal number of ATB episodes from all life segments, whereas recall of news events tended to decrease with remoteness of the episode. Findings suggest that generalizations regarding age or time-related deficiencies are unwarranted. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Depression and attributional style: Interpretations of important personal events.

The reformulated helplessness model of depression predicts that depressed persons attribute negative life events to internal, stable, and global causes while attributing positive life events to external, unstable, and specific causes. In addition to these hypotheses, the present author predicted that depressed persons would attribute negative life events to more controllable causes when compared with nondepressed persons. A 3rd prediction was that depressed persons' controllable causal attributions would be more closely related to independent judgments of the controllability of events than would the attributions of nondepressed persons. These predictions were examined in 45 depressed and 46 nondepressed female undergraduates (determined by the Beck Depression Inventory). Ss reported important personal events, provided untutored explanations of their causes, and rated the importance of particular causes of these events. Results confirm predictions for the internal dimension and the controllable dimension for negative events. Results do not support the 3rd prediction. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stressful life events and symptoms: A longitudinal model.

245 males (mean age 46.8 yrs) and 248 females (mean age 44 yrs) were readministered the Social Readjustment Rating Scale, measures of personal functioning, and a social background index 12–15 mo after their initial assessment. There was some evidence for temporal consistency in the number and type of events Ss experienced as well as for a relationship between initial symptoms of depression (among males) and the more frequent occurrence of later events. After controlling for Ss' initial symptom levels and propensity to experience stressful events, an increase in negative events during the follow-up period was related to an increase in symptoms. Among several gender differences, negative events were found to have more impact on females than males. The confounding of the measurement of discrete stressful events and ongoing life strain is identified as potentially underlying the consistency of "events" as well as contributing to the difficulty in interpreting the relationship between "events" and functioning. (53 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stressful life events, personality, and health: An inquiry into hardiness.

Studied personality as a conditioner of the effects of stressful life events on illness onset. Two groups of middle- and upper-level 40–49 yr old executives had comparably high degrees of stressful life events in the previous 3 yrs, as measured by the Schedule of Recent Events. One group of 86 Ss suffered high stress without falling ill, whereas the other group of 75 Ss reported becoming sick after their encounter with stressful life events. Illness was measured by the Seriousness of Illness Survey (A. R. Wyler et al 1970). Discriminant function analysis, run on half of the Ss in each group and cross-validated on the remaining cases, supported the prediction that high stress/low illness executives show, by comparison with high stress/high illness executives, more hardiness, that is, have a stronger commitment to self, an attitude of vigorousness toward the environment, a sense of meaningfulness, and an internal locus of control. (43 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Expectancies, mood, and performance of depressed and nondepressed psychiatric inpatients on chance and skill tasks.

The learned helplessness model of depression predicts that, compared with nondepressed patients, depressed patients will demonstrate psychomotor deficits, provide lower subjective evaluations of their performance, and perceive reinforcement in skill tasks as more response independent. These predictions were tested in 32 depressed (mean age 35 yrs) and 32 nondepressed (mean age 38 yrs) psychiatric inpatients, who had been administered the Quick Test and the Beck Depression Inventory. Ss performed card- and peg-sorting tasks in which measures of performance, ratings of mood and expectancy of success, and subjective evaluations of performance were obtained under chance and skill reinforcement conditions. Although some support was obtained for the prediction that depressives provide lower evaluations of their performance than nondepressives, the other predictions were not supported. Comparisons between depressed and nondepressed schizophrenics indicate that the mood of depressed schizophrenics was especially sensitive to task outcome for both skill and chance conditions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Causal attributions and perinatal depression.

85 1st-time mothers (18–35 yrs old) were followed from the 3rd trimester of pregnancy through the 2nd mo after childbirth. Initial attributional style was assessed (Attributional Style Questionnaire; ASQ) as well as causal attributions for a range of naturally occurring stressful events. Ss were assessed for level of depression with the Beck Depression Inventory and the Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression at 3 points. Pregnancy scores on the ASQ predicted level of postpartum depression among Ss who were not depressed during pregnancy. However, among Ss who were depressed during pregnancy, the ASQ was not a significant predictor of postpartum depression. Speed of recovery from postpartum depressive symptoms was significantly predicted by the ASQ. Other results indicate that the ASQ was not a good predictor of causal attributions for naturally occurring stressful events. Attributional style had a direct relationship to subsequent depression, rather than an indirect relationship mediated by causal attributions for actual stressful events. Unless findings can be attributed to problems in the measurement of attributions for actual events, modifications in the reformulated learned helplessness model may be indicated. (45 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social ties: Subgroup differences in costs and benefits.

Studied social support in response to stressful life events (i.e., whether social ties are stressful as well as supportive and whether there are subgroup differences in the efficacy of social support) among 314 women (mean age 34.7 yrs) with a mean educational level of 10.7 yrs and a mean family income of $7,500–20,000/yr. Ss completed measures of negative affect, perceived stressfulness of life events of significant others, and social support. Selected findings show that (1) the mobilization of social support was associated with better psychological well-being for Ss with greater personal resources; (2) Ss with lower levels of personal resources were more distressed by life events in the lives of their significant others, especially as the number of these events increased; and (3) subgroup effects of interpersonal support and stress on psychological well-being were independent and separate. It is concluded that Ss with greater material and psychological resources derived more beneficial support and suffered less stress from their social ties. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of actor depression on observer attributions: Existence and impact of negative attributions toward the depressed.

This experiment examined whether others explain the successes and failures of depressed versus nondepressed people differently and how these attributions are related to affective and behavioral reactions to a request for psychological help. Ss reported attributions about the success and failure experiences of hypothetical depressed and nondepressed people. Ss also responded to a hypothetical request for psychological help by indicating their attributions, affective reactions, willingness to help, and desire for future social contact. As hypothesized, Ss displayed more negative attributions toward depressed people. Replicating prior research (W. P. Sacco et al; see record 1986-12000-001), Ss responded to the depressive's request for help with mixed emotional and behavioral reactions. Path analyses revealed that attributions influenced affective reactions, which influenced willingness to help; but a more complex pattern emerged from the analysis of desire for future social contact. Results are discussed in terms of the interpersonal impact and possible causes of negative attributions about the experiences of depressed people. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Memory complaint and memory performance in the depressed elderly.

Compared depressed and nondepressed elderly Ss recruited in the context of a large epidemiological study of health on measures of self-reported memory disturbance and an objective index of memory performance (free recall). Three groups were studied: (a) 26 Ss (mean age 71.56 yrs) meeting Research Diagnostic Criteria (RDC) for major depression, (b) 25 Ss (mean age 72.16 yrs) with high levels of self-reported depressive symptoms who did not meet RDC for major depression, and (c) 26 Ss (mean age 71.81 yrs) with low levels of self-reported depressive symptoms. Ss with high depression symptom levels reported significantly higher levels of memory complaint than did Ss with low symptom levels, but there were no differences in self-reported memory disturbance as a function of depression diagnosis. There were no significant differences between groups on the free-recall measure, either as a function of symptom level or diagnosis. It is argued that symptom severity rather than diagnosis of depression is important in determining impairment in depressed elderly people. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Vulnerability to specific life events and prediction of course of disorder in unipolar depressed patients.

Tested a cognitive-life stress integrative model that predicted depressive symptoms following stressful life events when the negative events were personally meaningful to the individual, and likely to be interpreted as depletions or failure in the domain of central relevance to self-worth. 27 unipolar depressed outpatients completed a sociotropy-autonomy scale and were followed prospectively for periods of up to 2 yrs, with periodic assessments of life events and symptoms. As predicted, Ss' periods of worst symptoms followed a 3-mo period in which life event stress that matched their personally relevant domain significantly exceeded that of the nonrelevant domain. For Ss who experienced an onset following a symptom-free period, the severity of symptoms was significantly predicted by the interaction of their autonomy score and achievement events; however, the same pattern did not occur for sociotropy score and interpersonal events. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Recall of pleasant and unpleasant words in depressed subjects.

In Exp I, 20 clinically depressed inpatients (mean age 39.9 yrs), 20 nondepressed inpatients (mean age 42.65 yrs), and 20 nonpatients (mean age 44 yrs) were shown a word list containing pleasant and unpleasant words. One-half of Ss in each group were given free-recall instructions, the other half were asked to rate each word on a pleasantness scale prior to recall. Results show that only depressed Ss given free-recall instructions recalled more unpleasant words than pleasant words. In Exp II, 30 clinically depressed inpatients (mean age 39.33 yrs) were shown a word list consisting of either (1) pleasant and unpleasant words, (2) unpleasant words, or (3) pleasant words. Results show that only Ss receiving the mixed list recalled more unpleasant than pleasant words. Findings support the hypothesis that depressed Ss selectively process unpleasant words and that this processing is at the expense of attention to pleasant words. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Screening for depression among women attending their family physicians.

In Study 1, 437 women (aged 18–65 yrs) who completed the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES–D) while visiting their family doctors and received a score of 10 or higher were interviewed. A cut-off score of 13 on the CES–D resulted in zero false negatives among Ss when a classification (i.e., depressed vs nondepressed), based on total CES–D scores, was compared with a classification of these Ss on the basis of Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-III) criteria. In Study 2, a screening instrument for depression was tested among 679 women (aged 18–65 yrs) attending their family doctors and whose score on the CES–D was 13 or higher. The screening instrument consisted of the CES–D items plus items measuring recent stressful life events and chronic difficulties, social supports, and personal and family history of psychiatric disorder. The inclusion of additional screening items did not meaningfully improve the detection of depressed Ss beyond the level provided by total scores on the CES–D. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Longitudinal study of cognitions, life events, and depression in psychiatric inpatients.

Administered the Beck Depression Inventory, Attributional Style Questionnaire, Social Readjustment Rating Scale and an irrational beliefs inventory to 47 psychiatric inpatients (mean age 32 yrs) when they were admitted to the hospital, to 32 of them when they were discharged, and to 20 of them 7 mo later. The study tested the models of depression of A. T. Beck (1972) and of L. Y. Abramson et al (see record 1979-00305-001) that predict that stressful life events interact with certain types of cognitions (irrational beliefs in Beck's model; attributions in the Abramson et al model) to produce clinical depression. Results of multiple regression analysis show that severity of depression was related to irrational beliefs, attributions, the interaction of Attributions and Life Events, and the interaction of Attributions and Session. There was no relationship between depression and the interaction of Irrational Beliefs and Life Events. The Attributions?×?Session interaction indicated that the relationship between attributions and depression changed over the period studied; the relationship between irrational beliefs and depression was stable over time. Attributions and irrational beliefs changed over the period studied, indicating that they are not stable, unchanging aspects of personality. (35 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Predicting depressive symptomatology: Cognitive-behavioral models and postpartum depression.

170 women (mean age 26.6 yrs), seen in their 2nd trimester of pregnancy, were followed-up about 3 mo postpartum. Level of depression (Beck Depression Inventory) was just as high during pregnancy as during the postpartum period. Several variables assessed during pregnancy and during the postpartum period were significant predictors of postpartum depression level, including measures of prepartum depression, attributional style, delivery stress, and stressful life events. The predictor variables accounted for about 40% of the variance in level of postpartum depression. Predictor variables from earlier research such as history of menstrual problems, parity, education, and income did not account for significant variance in postpartum depression level. These findings provide some evidence for the role of cognitive-behavioral factors and stressful life events in depression. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Depressive attributional style in psychiatric inpatients: Effects of reinforcement level and assessment procedure.

Examined the effect of contextual variation on depressive attributional style in 42 psychiatric inpatients divided into depressed (mean age 36.43 yrs) and control (mean age 30.52 yrs) groups on the basis of their responses to the Beck Depression Inventory. Ss received 20%, 50%, or 80% reinforcement on a task. Three measurement variables were evaluated: (a) when the attributions were produced (during vs after the task), (b) how the attributions were made (generating vs selecting influences), and (c) who provided the dimensional scores (Ss vs raters). The expected group differences on the attributional composite occurred only under the 20 and 50% reinforcement conditions. Group differences were demonstrated only when Ss made attributions after the task (when Ss selected attributions from a list). However, when the Ss generated their own influences after the task, group differences emerged only when they and not the raters provided the dimensional scores. Findings suggest that depressive attributional style is dependent on contextual factors and parameters of measurement. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Frequency, quality, and impact of life events in self-rated depressed, behavioral-problem, and normal children.

Assessed 60 self-rated depressed, behavioral-problem, and normal 3rd–6th grade children closely matched for sex, age, and socioeconomic status (SES) for the number, quality, and impact of stressful life events in the past year. Results indicate that dysphoria-reporting Ss experienced more life events and a higher qualitative index of stress than the other 2 groups. The impact of each event, however, was not greater for the depressed Ss than for the other 2 groups. The self-rated depressed Ss appeared to experience more major family disruptions than the other 2 groups of Ss. (6 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A cross-contextual analysis of boys' social competence: From family to school.

Examined the extent to which the hostile attributions and coercive behaviors of mothers and sons were associated with indices of aggression, acceptance by peers, and teacher-rated social competence in the peer group. Ss were 104 married and divorced mothers and their sons (aged 7–9 yrs). Mothers' and sons' hostile attributions were significantly related to the coerciveness of their interactions, but only mothers' attributions related to reports of the children's aggression in the classroom. Boys who reported many stressful events in their lives behaved coercively with their mothers and were viewed as more aggressive and less socially competent with peers. The relation between stressful life events and the boys' aggression with their peers was mediated, in part, by boys' coerciveness with their mothers. The association between boys' coerciveness with their mothers and social acceptance by peers appeared to be mediated by the aggressiveness of their interactions with their peers. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attributional versus preattributional variables in self-esteem and depression: A comparison and test of learned helplessness theory.

Tested, in 2 samples of undergraduates (92 in Exp I and 55 in Exp II), predictions made according to the attributional reformulation of learned helplessness theory concerning the cognitive determinants of low self-esteem and depression. Real and hypothetical life events were used. Ss were administered the Beck Depression Inventory, a checklist of life events, and a self-esteem scale. As predicted, internal attributions for hypothetical success and failure were correlated with self-esteem, but there was an unexpected correlation with global attributions for negative outcomes. Two preattributional variables, consensus and consistency judgments, were also related to self-esteem and depression. In contrast to learned helplessness theory, a path analysis indicated that these variables were not attributionally mediated. Consensus judgment was as strong a predictor of depression as the number of recent distressing life events that Ss had experienced. Other evidence that links depression to perceived low consensus is described, and a possible etiological role for this variable is outlined. (43 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)