Enhancement in Li+/Mg2+ separation from salt lake brine with PDA–PEI composite nanofiltration membrane

Extraction of lithium from high Mg²⁺/Li⁺ ratio salt lake brine with the nanofiltration (NF) membrane is significantly challenging. Interfacial polymerization was utilized for the facile modification of NF membranes with polydopamine (PDA) and polyethylenimine (PEI) to enhance lithium separation efficiency. Comparing permeability and salts rejection (Li⁺ and Mg²⁺) of three NF membranes before and after PDA/PEI deposition, it was observed that separation efficiency was not only dependent on steric hindrance but also affected by Donnan exclusion mechanism. In the case of NF270 membrane after facile polymerization, due to small pore size distribution and low charge density confirmed by zeta potential measurements, Li⁺ permeability was reached about 95% at a flux of 21.33 L·m⁻²·h⁻¹. Although with the DK membrane, separation factor SF_Li/Mg was also increased up to 60 after modification, the pore narrowing effect significantly decreased lithium permeability and flux. Experimental results showed that facile modification not only enhanced stability and hydrophilicity but also reduced the high Mg²⁺/Li⁺ ratio from 30 to 4.1 in single-stage separation.     

Ion-“distillation” for isolating lithium from lake brine

Lithium demands increase dramatically and make it highly attractive to develop advanced ion separation technology/material. However, high Mg²⁺/Li⁺ ratio impedes the extraction due to the difficulties in separation of the two ions. Here, we propose an ion-“distillation” technology based on electro-membrane stacking for the extraction of Li⁺ from lake brine (Mg²⁺/Li⁺ ratio: 31.58). This technology employs commercially available monovalent ion-selective membranes, and ions are driven by electric. Using the four-stage ion-“distillation” technology, selectivity values of 26,177 and 27,000 are achieved between Li⁺ and Mg²⁺ and between Cl⁻ and SO₄²⁻, respectively. The electro-stripping mechanism when monovalent ion migrating across the membranes probably magnitude the Li⁺ selectivity, which is higher than the other reported values in the literature for membrane processes, and the purity of the final LiCl product is greater than battery grade (99.95%). The proposed process can potentially be applied in efficient ion fractionation and special separations.     

Microwave assisted hydrothermal synthesis of MnO2·0.5H2O ion-sieve for lithium ion selective adsorption

Li_1.6Mn_1.6O₄ (LMO) synthesized by microwave assisted hydrothermal method were used to obtain MnO₂·0.5H₂O ion sieves (HMO) after acid treatment. The HMO-1 prepared with a Li/Mn molar ratio of 4, at 100ºC for 1 h under microwave irradiation, exhibits an effective Li⁺ adsorption capacity of 5.6 mmol·g^?1 and a high selectivity to Li⁺ with an equilibrium distribution coefficient of 12366.44 mL·g^?1. Moreover, it shows almost saturated ion-exchange capacity (> 95%) for Li⁺ extracted/inserted process. Thus HMO ion-sieves with high adsorption capacity and selectivity to Li⁺ are expected to be a promising application for Li⁺ selective adsorption from brine, seawater, and aqueous lithium generated in industries.     

Solvent-Polymeric Membranes for Separation of Li+ From Other Alkali Metal and Alkaline Earth Ions

Lithium may be recovered from the Dead Sea brines by a process which combines membrane separation with ion-exchange. Solvent-polymeric membranes based on alkyl-arylphosphates cause selective permeation of lithium ions with Br⁻₃ as counter ions. Addition of the derivatives of neutral “crown” ethers did not improve their performance and an adverse effect, due to the decrease in the fluidity of the membrane system, was observed. Incorporation of ionizable “crown” ethers compatible with the system may, however, be advantageous; pH gradients could act as a driving force for transport of lithium in such systems. Membranes prepared with (2-ethylhexyl)-diphenyl phosphate (Santicizer 141) gave the best results from the point of view of selectivity of Li⁺ transport vs. Mg²⁺ and Ca²⁺. Maintenance of ca. 10⁻³ M concentrations of Br₂ in the end-brine solutions gives optimal membrane performance. No significant change in membrane permeability and selectivity occurred during six months of their operation. Lithium ions in the product solution of the membrane separation process may be further separated from the residual Mg²⁺ and Ca²⁺ ions and concentrated up to 1 M by ion exchange processes. Lithium may be precipitated from such solutions, free from alkaline earth ions, as Li₂CO₃.     

Competition between Li+ and Mg2+ for red blood cell membrane phospholipids: A 31P, 7Li, and 6Li nuclear magnetic resonance study

The mode of action of the lithium ion (Li⁺) in the treatment of manic depression or bipolar illness is still under investigation, although this inorganic drug has been in clinical use for 50 yr. Several research reports have provided evidence for Li⁺/Mg²⁺ competition in biomolecules. We carried out this study to characterize the interactions of Li⁺ and Mg²⁺ with red blood cell (RBC) membrane components to see whether Li⁺/Mg²⁺ competition occurs. ³¹P nuclear magnetic resonance chemical shift measurements of the phospholipids extracted from the RBC membranes indicated that the anionic phospholipids, phosphatidylserine and phosphatidylinositol, bind Li⁺ and Mg²⁺ most strongly. From ⁶Li relaxation measurements, the Li⁺ binding constant to the phospholipid extract was found to be 45±5M⁻¹. Thus, these studies showed that the phospholipids play a major role in metal ion binding. ⁷Li spin-lattice relaxation measurements conducted on unsealed and cytoskeleton-depleted RBC membrane in the presence of magnesium indicated that the removal of the cytoskeleton increases lithium binding to the more exposed anionic phospholipids (357±24 M⁻¹) when compared to lithium binding in the unsealed RBC membrane (221±21 M⁻¹). Therefore, it can be seen that the cytoskeleton does not play a major role in Li⁺ binding or in Li⁺/Mg²⁺ competition.     

Comparative study of lithium ion conductors in the system Li1+xAlxA2−xIV (PO4)3 with AIV=Ti or Ge and 0≤x≤0·7 for use as Li+ sensitive membranes

Preparations and physico-chemical characterizations of NASICON-type compounds in the system Li_1+xAl_xA_2−x^IV(PO₄)₃ (A^IV=Ti or Ge) are described. Ceramics have been fabricated by sol-gel and co-grinding processes for use as ionosensitive membrane for Li⁺ selective electrodes. The structural and electrical characteristics of the pellets have been examined. Solid solutions are obtained with Al/Ti and Al/Ge substitutions in the range 0≤x≤0·6. A minimum of the rhombohedral c parameter appears for x about 0·1 for both solutions. The grain ionic conductivity has been characterized only in the case of Ge-based compounds. It is related to the carrier concentration and the structural properties of the NASICON covalent skeleton. The results confirm that the Ti-based framework is more calibrated to Li⁺ migration than the Ge-based one. A grain conductivity of 10⁻³ S cm⁻¹ is obtained at 25°C in the case of Li_1·3Al_0·3Ti_1·7(PO₄)₃. A total conductivity of about 6×10⁻⁵ S cm⁻¹ is measured on sintered pellets because of grain boundary effects. The use of such ceramics in ISE devices has shown that the most confined unit cell (i.e. in Ge-based materials) is more appropriate for selectivity effect, although it is less conductive.©     

The effect of some soluble inorganic admixtures on the early hydration of portland cement

The effects of the soluble chlorides, bromides, nitrates, sulphates and acetates of Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, Li⁺, Na⁺ and Zn²⁺ as well as the corresponding mineral acids on the early hydration of neat Portland cement pastes have been studied. Both the cations and anions are ranked according to their general effectiveness as accelerators of the hydration of the Ca₃SiO₅ phase: Ca²⁺>Mg²⁺>Li⁺>Na⁺>H₂O>Zn²⁺ and OH^? >Cl^?>Br^? >NO₃^?SO₄²～H₂O > CH₃CO₂^?.     

Ion-Exchange Properties of lon-Sieve-Type Manganese Oxides Prepared by Using Different Kinds of Introducing Ions

Abstract

Three ion-sieve-type manganese oxides, HMnO(Li), HMnO(Na), and HMnO(K), were prepared by acid treatments of Li⁺-, Na⁺-, and K⁺-introduced manganese oxides, respectively. Three oxides were obtained from γ-MnO² and the corresponding alkali metal hydroxides by heating at 600°C. The ion-exchange properties of the adsorbents were investigated by pH titration, K_d measurements, and the adsorption of metal ions from seawater. The selectivity sequences of alkali metal ions were Na⁺ < Cs⁺ < Rb⁺ < K⁺ < Li⁺ for HMnO(Li) and Li⁺ Na⁺ < Cs⁺ < K⁺ < Rb⁺ for HMnO(Na) and HMnO(K). The high selectivity of Li⁺ on HMnO(Li) can be ascribed to an ion-sieve effect of spinel-type manganese oxide which was produced from LiMn₂O₄ Since HMnO(Na) and HMnO(K) had [2 × 2] tunnels of edge-shared [MnO₆] octahedra, the high selectivities of K⁺ and Rb⁺ on these samples were used to explain that the sizes of the [2 × 2] tunnels were suitable for filling ions of about 1.4 Å in radius in a stable configuration. The order of metal-ion uptake from seawater was Sr²⁺ < K⁺ < Mg²⁺ < Ca²⁺ < Na⁺ < Li⁺ for HMnO(Li), Li⁺ < Sr²⁺ < Mg²⁺ < Ca²⁺ < Na⁺ < K⁺ for HMnO(Na), and Li⁺ < Sr²⁺ < Ca²⁺ < Mg²⁺ < K⁺ < Na⁺ for HMnO(K).     

Fabrication of superhydrophobic electrospun polyimide nanofibers modified with polydopamine and polytetrafluoroethylene nanoparticles for oil–water separation

The oil–water separation technologies of removing oil pollutants from water in an efficient and economical way is a challenge. The current methods used for oil–water separation suffer many shortcomings, including a low separation efficiency, complex separation equipment, high operation costs, and secondary pollution. In this study, we fabricated a highly flexible, high-intensity, quite stable superhydrophobic and superoleophilic polyimide (PI) nanofibrous membranes, which are much more efficient and cost efficient for oil–water separation by modifying the membranes with a polydopamine (PDA) solution and polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) dispersion. The fabricated membrane (PDA–PTFE–PI) possesses both the high tensile stress of PI and the superhydrophobic and superlipophilic properties of the PDA–PTFE coating. The modified membrane could separate various oil–water mixtures efficiently at a high flux (6000 L·m⁻²·h⁻¹) and an extremely high efficiency (>99%). Furthermore, even when the membrane was under an extremely hostile environment (with an ultrahigh temperature, strong acidity, or strong basicity), it still remained quickly stable with a good separation efficiency and recyclability after 10 cycles. We anticipate that our study will provide a new technology for the highly efficient mass production of oil–water mixture management. © 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2019 , 136, 47638.     

A TiO2 modified whisker mullite hollow fiber ceramic membrane for high-efficiency oil/water emulsions separation

Design and preparation of membranes with ultrahigh separation performance and antifouling property for oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions remains challenging. In this study, a high flux mullite/TiO₂ ceramic composite membrane was prepared via multi-precipitation of TiO₂ on a whisker mullite hollow fiber support synthesized by combining phase inversion and high-temperature sintering techniques. The results showed that the generated whisker mullite structure improved the permeation flux, and the micro-nano structured TiO₂ functional layer endowed the membrane surface with superhydrophility and stability. The retention of the optimal composite membrane (M20T13) that was soaked in the titanium solution 20 times for 13 min each time for the O/W emulsions like n-hexane, toluene and engine oil maintained over 98 %, and the flux after 6 h filtration was 668.34 L·m⁻²·h⁻¹, 487.25 L·m⁻²·h⁻¹ and 258.66 L·m⁻²·h⁻¹, respectively, much higher than that of the optimal substrate (F3A1, mass ratio of fly ash: Al₂O₃ = 3:1). Moreover, the flux recovery rate of M20T13 was much higher than that of F3A1 after chemical backwashing. This work manifests great potential in O/W treatment fields.     

Selective Transport of Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metallic Ions through a Supported Liquid Membrane Containing Tripentyl Phosphate as a Carrier

Abstract

A selective transport system for alkali and alkaline earth metallic ions with a perchlorate ion as a pairing ion species through a supported liquid membrane (SLM) containing tripentyl phosphate (TPP) as a carrier is described. The SLM used is a porous polypropylene membrane impregnated with TPP solution in o-nitrophenyloctylether. The effects of the pairing ion species, the initial perchlorate concentration, and the TPP concentration on metallic ion transportability are examined under various experimental conditions. The permeation velocities of the metallic ions in the transport system followed the sequence Li⁺?Na⁺>K⁺>Mg²⁺; that is, a highly selective transport for Li⁺ ion was observed. Compared with the transport rates of alkali metallic ions, those of transition metallic ions such as Cu²⁺ and Fe³⁺ ions are very low. The permeation velocities of alkali and alkaline earth metallic ions through an SLM are dependent on the concentrations of perchlorate and TPP. Equations for the permeation velocities of Li⁺, Na⁺, K⁺, and Mg²⁺ ions through an SLM, based on two concentrations of perchlorate and TPP, are proposed.     

Evaluation of a modified spray-applied interfacial polymerization method for preparation of nanofiltration membranes

Nanofiltration (NF) membranes were fabricated by using piperazine (PIP) and trimesoyl chloride (TMC) by conventional and spray-applied interfacial polymerization methods, studying the effect of the application method for both phases, the number of applied layers, and the displacement speed for the spray application. A polysulfone ultrafiltration membrane was used as support. NF membranes were characterized by different spectroscopic, microscopic, and physicochemical techniques. Rejection capacity was evaluated for sodium chloride (NaCl), sodium sulfate (Na₂SO₄), and magnesium sulfate (MgSO₄) salts; the decreasing rejection order was Na₂SO₄ > MgSO₄ > NaCl for each NF membrane. NF membrane prepared with one layer of the sprayed out TMC solution and conventional application of PIP solution exhibited the highest salt rejection (99% for 1000 ppm Na₂SO₄) and a permeated flux of 10.28 L m⁻² h⁻¹ at 0.55 MPa. The modified method is a facile-reproducible preparation methodology that reduces the consumption of time, effort, and reagents leading to a scalable manufacturing process for separation technology. © 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2019 , 136, 48129.     

Poly[poly(oxypropylene) phosphate] macroionophores for transport and separation of cations in a hybrid: Cation‐exchange polymer and liquid membrane system

Poly[poly(oxypropylene) phosphate]s (PPOPP, M_n = 5800, 8100, 10,400), with different POP units (400, 1200, 2000), were synthesized and applied as cation‐selective macroionophores in a multimembrane hybrid system (MHS). The solution of PPOPP in dichloroethane formed the flowing liquid membrane (FLM) circulating between two polymer cation‐exchange membranes, and subsequently, between two polymer‐made pervaporation (PV) membranes. It was found that the PPOPP macroionophores activate the preferential transport of Zn²⁺ cations from aqueous solutions containing competing Cu²⁺, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, K⁺, and Na⁺ cations. The following separation orders were observed for PPOPPs with POP‐400 and POP‐1200: Zn²⁺ > Cu²⁺ ? Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, K⁺, Na⁺, and for PPOPP with POP‐2000: Zn²⁺ > Cu²⁺,Ca²⁺ ? Mg²⁺, K⁺, Na⁺. Always, the particular cations are separated as: Zn²⁺ > Cu²⁺, Ca²⁺ > Mg²⁺, and K⁺ > Na⁺. The properties of PPOPPs were compared to respective transport and separation characteristics corresponding to those of respective poly(propylene glycol)s and poly(oxypropylene) bisphosphates. The results of investigation indicate that the bifunctional character of PPOPPs is caused by the presence of ionizable groups and probably pseudocyclic POP structures. By comparing the separation of cations in the simple MHS[FLM] system and the system supported by pervaporation unit [MHS[FLM‐PV] it was found that continuous dehydration of an organic FLM improves the system overall performance. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 93: 1436–1445, 2004     

Highly selective,regenerated ion-sieve microfiltration porous membrane for targeted separation of Li<Superscript>+</Superscript>

A novel adsorbent lithium ion-sieve membrane (LISM) toward Li⁺ was successfully prepared by the phase inversion technique using synthesized lithium ion-sieve ultrafine powder as the precursor, poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) as a binder, N,N-dimethylacetamide (DMAc) as the solvent. The key design for the synthesis of LISM is the formation of lithium ion-sieve dropping with PVDF powder to obtain a highly selective adsorbent. The prepared LISM have been characterized. The X-ray diffraction illustrated that the synthesized lithium ion-sieve were purity phase cubic spinel structure, the scanning electron microscopy shown that the LISM with a poriferous surface morphology and lithium ion-sieve equably dispersed on the surface of the membrane. The membrane flux (9.7 mL cm^?1 min^?1) suggested that the LISM achieved high hydrophily and stability. The maximum adsorption capacity is 27.8 mg g^?1 in a high adsorption rate towards Li⁺ within 60 min. In addition, the LISM has excellent adsorption selectivity, since the separation factor α is 4.76 with respect to Mg²⁺. Overall results revealed that the LISM as a good candidate for Li⁺ separation and concentration from salt lake brine with a relatively high value of Mg²⁺/Li⁺ ratio.     

TiO2-incorporated polyelectrolyte composite membrane with transformable hydrophilicity/hydrophobicity for nanofiltration separation

The wettability of the membrane surface has shown obvious influent on the separation performance of the membrane. In this work, a hydrophilic PDA-[PDDA/TiO₂]⁺ Cl⁻ membrane was prepared by a one-step codeposition of poly(diallyldimethylammonium chloride) (PDDA) polyelectrolyte solution containing positively charged TiO₂@PDDA nanoparticles with the assistance of dopamine (DA). Such positively charged membrane can be transformed into a hydrophobic membrane PDA-[PDDA/TiO₂]⁺ PFO⁻ via the counterion exchange between Cl⁻ and PFO⁻ (perfluorooctanoate). The transformation between hydrophilicity and hydrophobicity is reversible. For both hydrophilic and hydrophobic membranes, the nanofiltration performances were respectively investigated by the aqueous solution and ethanol solution of dyes including methyl blue (MB), Congo red (CR) and Evans blue (EB), and as well metal salt aqueous solution. The consecutive running stability and anti-fouling performance of both hydrophilic and hydrophobic membranes were explored. The results revealed that both membranes showed high nanofiltration performances for retention of dyes in (non)aqueous solution. For the hydrophilic membrane, the rejection of salts in a sequence is MgSO₄ > Na₂SO₄ > MgCl₂ > NaCl. Moreover, both of the hydrophilic and hydrophobic membranes showed high stability and antifouling property.     

Nanocomposite hollow fiber nanofiltration membranes: Fabrication,characterization, and pilot-scale evaluation for surface water treatment

Thin-film nanocomposite (TFN) membranes were fabricated by interfacial polymerization of a polyamide (PA) layer on the shell side of hollow fiber membrane supports. TiO₂ nanoparticle loadings in the thin-film layer were 0.01, 0.05, and 0.20 wt %. Nanoparticle-free PA thin-film composite (TFC) membranes served as the comparative basis. The TFN membranes were characterized in terms of the chemical composition, structure, and surface properties of the separation layer. Incorporating nanoTiO₂ improved membrane permeability up to 12.6-fold. During preliminary laboratory-scale evaluation, TFN membranes showed lower salt rejection but higher TOC rejection in comparisons with the corresponding values for TFC controls. Based on the performance in lab-scale tests, TFN membranes with 0.01 wt % nanoTiO₂ loading were selected for an evaluation at the pilot scale with synthetic surface water as the feed. While the permeate flux during long-term pilot-scale operation gradually decreased for TFC membranes, TFN membranes had a higher initial permeate flux that gradually increased with time. The TOC rejection by TFN and TFC membranes was comparable. We conclude that TFN membranes show promise for full-scale surface water treatment applications. © 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2019 , 136, 48205.     

Development of thin‐film composite membranes for carbon dioxide and methane separation using sulfonated poly(phenylene oxide)

Novel membranes based on sulfonated poly (phenylene oxide) (SPPO) was developed. SPPO membranes in the hydrogen form were converted to metal ion forms. The effect of exchange with metal ions including monovalent (Li⁺, Na⁺, K⁺), divalent (Mg²⁺, Ba²⁺, Ca²⁺) and trivalent (Al³⁺) ions was investigated in terms of permeation rate and permeation rate ratios for CO₂ and CH₄ gases. Both dense homogeneous membranes and thin‐film composite (TFC) membranes were studied for their gas separation characteristics. The effect of membrane preparation conditions and operating parameters on the membrane performance were also investigated. The selectivity of the TFC membrane increased as the cationic charge density increased as a result of electrostatic cross‐linking. TFC membrane of very high selectivity was achieved by coating a thin layer of SPPO‐Mg on a PES substrate. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 76: 735–742, 2000     

Sulfonated poly(ether ether ketone)/s–TiO2 composite membrane for a vanadium redox flow battery

The SPEEK/s-TiO₂ composite membrane was prepared by blending sulfonated poly(ether ether ketone) (SPEEK) and sulfonated titanium dioxide (s-TiO₂) nanoparticles. The important physiochemical parameters such as proton conductivity, water uptake, swelling degree and ion exchange capacity of the composite membrane were measured. The thermal stability and chemical stability were also tested. It was observed that the SPEEK/s-TiO₂ composite membrane exhibited the best selectivity (7.13 × 10⁴ S·min·cm⁻³) accompanying high proton conductivity (0.061 S·cm⁻¹) and low tetravalent vanadium ion (VO²⁺) permeability (8.55 × 10⁻⁷ cm²·min⁻¹) compared with Nafion117, SPEEK and SPEEK/TiO₂ membranes. The battery performance with these membranes was characterized by charge–discharge cycling tests and it was found that the SPEEK/s-TiO₂ composite membrane showed the highest energy efficiency (EE) up to 82.3%, indicating the SPEEK/s-TiO₂ composite membrane is a candidate for vanadium redox flow battery (VRFB) application. © 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2020 , 137, 48830.     

Electrospinning superhydrophobic–superoleophilic PVDF-SiO2 nanofibers membrane for oil–water separation

Oil–water separation has attracted research interest due to the damages of oily wastewater caused to the environment and human beings. Electrospun fiber membrane has high oil–water separation performance. A nanofibers membrane with multi-stage roughness was prepared by electrospinning using poly(vinylidene fluoride)(PVDF)-silica blend solution as raw material. The result shows that the water contact angle (WCA) of the nanofibers membrane was promoted from 138.5 ± 1° to 150.0 ± 1.5° when the SiO₂ content was increased from 0 to 3 wt%. The nanofibers membranes exhibited excellent separation efficiency (99 ± 0.1%) under gravity drive, with high separation flux of 1857 ± 101 L·m⁻²·h⁻¹. More importantly, the obtained PVDF-SiO₂ nanofibers membranes showed excellent multi-cycle performance and stable chemical resistance, which would make them great advantages for the practical application of oil–water separation.     

Fabrication and characterization of poly(vinylidene fluoride)–polytetrafluoroethylene composite membrane for CO2 absorption in gas–liquid contacting process

The wetting resistance of poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) membrane is a critical factor which determines the carbon dioxide (CO₂) absorption performance of the gas–liquid membrane contactors. In this study, the composite PVDF–polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) hollow fiber membranes were fabricated through dry-jet wet phase-inversion method by dispersing PTFE nanoparticles into PVDF solution and adopting phosphoric acid as nonsolvent additive. Compared with the PVDF membrane, the composite membranes presented higher CO₂ absorption flux due to their higher effective surface porosity and surface hydrophobicity. The composite membrane with addition of 5 wt % PTFE in the dope gained the optimum CO₂ absorption flux of 9.84 × 10⁻⁴ and 2.02 × 10⁻³ mol m⁻² s⁻¹ at an inlet gas (CO₂/N₂ = 19/81, v/v) flow rate of 100 mL min⁻¹ by using distilled water and aqueous diethanolamine solution, respectively. Moreover, the 5% PTFE membrane showed better long-term stability than the PVDF membrane regardless of different types of absorbent, indicating that polymer blending demonstrates great potential for gas separation. © 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2019 , 136, 47767.