Revitalizing agricultural research for global food security

An imaginative American legislation, the Morrill Act of 1862, established the U. S. Land Grant University Model, where such universities would adopt a uniform, tri-partite function of education, research, and extension. It legislated that these universities would provide segments of society with practical and timely education that would be useful to their daily lives. A profound concept based on a system that focused on educating the next generation of agricultural scientists, providing support to the generation of new knowledge and technology, and communicating the results of the new discoveries to key stakeholders was born. Sustained support of this 19th century legislation and the commitment and drive of generations of agricultural scientists and farmers brought about remarkable advances, making 20th century American agriculture most productive and the envy of the world. These successes were replicated in North America, Europe, and in much of the developed world, and served as the impetus for the emergence of the Asian Green Revolution. Farming became a profitable business and consumers were accustomed to safe and relatively inexpensive supply of food, unfortunately leading to 21st century complacency. The recent food price crises seem to have reawakened world leaders and donor agencies to the necessity of assuring the food security of nations and to revitalizing and reinvesting in the agricultural sciences.     

Skyfarming an ecological innovation to enhance global food security

Population growth increases the demand for food and thus leads to expansion of cultivated land and intensification of agricultural production. There is a definite limit to both of these options for food security and their multiple negative effects on the environment undermine the aim for sustainability. Presently the impact of the Green Revolution on crop production is levelling off at high yields attained and even the potential of large scale irrigation programmes and transgenic crops seem to be limited in view of the expected increase in demand for food. Moreover, climate change threatens to affect agricultural production across the globe. Skyfarming represents a promising approach for food production that is largely environment independent and therefore immune to climate change. Optimal growing conditions, shielded from weather extremes and pests are aimed at raising plant production towards the physiological potential. Selecting rice as a pioneer crop for Skyfarming will not only provide a staple for a large part of the global population, but also significantly reduce the greenhouse gas emission caused by paddy cultivation. Multiplication of the benefits could be achieved by stacking production floors vertically. In Skyfarming the crop, with its requirements for optimal growth, development and production, determines the system’s design. Accordingly, the initial development must focus on the growing environment, lighting, temperature, humidity regulation and plant protection strategies as well as on the overall energy supply. For each of these areas potentially suitable technologies are presented and discussed.     

Skyfarming an ecological innovation to enhance global food security

Population growth increases the demand for food and thus leads to expansion of cultivated land and intensification of agricultural production. There is a definite limit to both of these options for food security and their multiple negative effects on the environment undermine the aim for sustainability. Presently the impact of the Green Revolution on crop production is levelling off at high yields attained and even the potential of large scale irrigation programmes and transgenic crops seem to be limited in view of the expected increase in demand for food. Moreover, climate change threatens to affect agricultural production across the globe. Skyfarming represents a promising approach for food production that is largely environment independent and therefore immune to climate change. Optimal growing conditions, shielded from weather extremes and pests are aimed at raising plant production towards the physiological potential. Selecting rice as a pioneer crop for Skyfarming will not only provide a staple for a large part of the global population, but also significantly reduce the greenhouse gas emission caused by paddy cultivation. Multiplication of the benefits could be achieved by stacking production floors vertically. In Skyfarming the crop, with its requirements for optimal growth, development and production, determines the system??s design. Accordingly, the initial development must focus on the growing environment, lighting, temperature, humidity regulation and plant protection strategies as well as on the overall energy supply. For each of these areas potentially suitable technologies are presented and discussed.     

Drought insurance for agricultural development and food security in dryland areas

This paper reviews the potential role for and experience with index based insurance for managing drought risks in agriculture and rural areas in the dry areas of developing countries. It argues that while index insurance is not a panacea for risk management, it could make important, market-based contributions in catalyzing sustainable safety nets and promoting agricultural growth. And though the private sector should be the main supplier, there are still important enabling and facilitating roles that need to be played by the public sector.     

从全球食品保障指数探讨食品安全

近年来食品安全问题日益突出,建立公众参与的客观、公平、独立、透明的风险评估、风险交流机制成为我国未来应对食品安全风险的重要措施。2013年7月,英国经济学人智库(EIU)发布了"全球食品安全指数(GFSI)",对我国当年食品安全状况作了评估,受到各方的高度关注。为了让公众对相关背景有较为全面的了解,理性地对待我国的食品安全问题,我们依据相关信息,对GFSI作了客观解读,并以中国、美国和印度为例,从食品价格承受能力、食品供应能力和质量与安全三个方面,对这三个国家的食品安全状况进行了对比,并对我国食品安全监管体系的最新调整和改革措施进行了述评。     

Coordination in food security crises: a stakeholder analysis of the challenges facing the global food security cluster

In mid 2011, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and World Food Programme (WFP) formally launched the global Food Security Cluster (FSC) as the UN’s global mechanism for coordinating food security responses in emergencies worldwide. The need for greater coordination of food security response in emergencies is enormous: Not only is the number of actors growing ever larger, the operating environment is more complex, and the range of responses requires substantially greater levels of skill than ever in analysis, planning, implementation, and monitoring and evaluation. Will this new mechanism provide the leadership needed for complex, multi-dimensional responses needed to protect food security and livelihoods in disasters? What are the special challenges the cluster faces? This paper analyzes a series of country level case studies and key informant interviews with stakeholders in a range of roles to address these questions.     

Policy integration in the EU governance of global food security

The global food price spikes of 2007–8 and 2010 led to increased awareness of the complexity of food (in)security as a policy problem that crosscuts traditional sectoral, spatial and temporal scales. At the European Union (EU) level, this awareness resulted in calls for better integrated approaches to govern food security. This paper addresses the question of to what extent these calls were followed by an actual shift towards better integrated EU food security governance. We address this question by applying a processual policy integration framework that distinguishes four integration dimensions: (i) the policy frame, (ii) subsystem involvement, (iii) policy goals, and (iv) policy instruments. The empirical body of evidence for assessing shifts in these dimensions draws upon an extensive analysis of EU documents complemented with interview data. We find that policy integration advanced to at least some degree: the policy frame expanded towards new dimensions of food security; a wider array of subsystems started discussing food security concerns; food security goals diversified somewhat and there was an increased awareness of coherence and linkages with other issues; existing instruments, including internal procedural instruments, were expanded and made more consistent; and new types of instruments were developed. At the same time, significant differences exist between policy domains and policy integration efforts seem to have come to a halt in recent years. We conclude with various policy recommendations and suggestions for follow-up research.     

食品安全生产的影响因素分析

分析了我国食品生产和行为的变化以及影响食品安全的主要因素,包括环境因素和生产技术性因素。     

A food systems approach to researching food security and its interactions with global environmental change

There is growing concern that satisfying societal demand for food over coming decades will be increasingly challenging. Much of the debate centres on increasing food production which has always been–and remains–an important strategy to alleviate food insecurity. However, despite the fact that more than enough food is currently produced per capita to adequately feed the global population, about 925 million people remained food insecure in 2010. Meeting future demand will be further complicated by deleterious changes in climate and other environmental factors (collectively termed ‘global environmental change’, GEC). This paper lays out a case for a food systems approach to research the complex food security/GEC arena and provides a number of examples of how this can help. These include (i) providing a framework for structuring dialogues aimed at enhancing food security and identifying the range of actors and other interested parties who should be involved; (ii) integrating analyses of the full set of food system activities (i.e. producing, storing, processing, packaging, trading and consuming food) with those of the food security outcomes i.e. stability of food access, utilisation and availability, and all their nine elements (rather than only food production); (iii) helping to both assess the impacts of GEC on food systems and identify feedbacks to the earth system from food system activities; (iv) helping to identify intervention points for enhancing food security and analysing synergies and trade-offs between food security, ecosystem services and social welfare outcomes of different adaptation pathways; and (v) highlighting where new research is needed.     

Methodological bases of the nutritional-physiological assessment of the per capita consumption of foods. I. Recording and characterization of the per capita consumption]

Per capita consumption indices are reference points essential to the provision of foods and the planning of food consumption. From them global statements regarding the energy and nutrient supply can be deduced. But this requires the exact definition of the per capita consumption indices with regard to the recording level, subitems and average losses. The mode of calculation and the assortment of each of the presented food groups are characterized in detail and estimate values for the occurring losses are indicated which are needed for the nutritional-physiological balancing of the per capita consumption indices.     

Crop health and its global impacts on the components of food security

The literature on the importance of plant pathogens sometimes emphasizes their possible role in historical food shortages and even in famines. Aside from such major crises, plant pathogens should also be seen as important reducers of crop performances, with impacts on system sustainability, from the ecological, agronomical, social, and economic standpoints – all contributing ultimately to affecting food security. These views need reconciliation in order to produce a clearer picture of the multidimensional effects of plant disease epidemics. Such a picture is needed for disease management today, but would also be useful for future policies. This article attempts to develop a framework that would enable assessment of the impacts of plant diseases, referred collectively to as crop health, on food security via its components. We have combined three different existing definitions of food security in order to develop a framework consisting of the following six components: (1) Availability. Primary production; (2) Availability. Import - Stockpiles; (3) Access. Physical and supply chain; (4) Access. Economic; (5) Stability of food availability; (6) Utility-Safety-Quality-Nutritive value. In this framework, components of food security are combined with three attributes of production situations: the nature of the considered crop (i.e. food- or non-food), the structure of farms (i.e. subsistence or commercial), and the structure of markets (i.e. weakly organized and local, to strongly organized and globalized). The resulting matrix: [Food security components] × [Attributes of production situations] provides a framework where the impacts of chronic, acute, and emerging plant disease epidemics on food security can be examined. We propose that, given the number of components and interactions at play, a systems modelling approach is required to address the functioning of food systems exposed to plant disease risks. This approach would have application in both the management of the current attrition of crop performances by plant diseases, and also of possible disease-induced shocks. Such an approach would also enable quantifying shifts in disease vulnerability of production situations, and therefore, of food systems, as a result of climate change, globalization, and evolving crop health.     

Food security in high mountain regions: agricultural production and the impact of food subsidies in Ladakh,Northern India

The issues of food security and its specifics in high mountain regions are often neglected in national and international science and policy agendas. At the same time, local food systems have undergone significant transitions over the past two decades. Whereas subsistence agriculture still forms the economic mainstay in these regions, current dynamics are generally characterized by livelihood diversification with increased off-farm income opportunities and an expansion of external development interventions. A case study from Ladakh (Indian Himalayas) illustrates how changes of the political and socio-economic conditions have affected food security strategies of mountain households. In the cold, arid environment of Ladakh, where combined mountain agriculture is the dominant land use system, reduced importance of the subsistence base for staple foods is reflected in current consumption patterns. Seasonal shortfalls and low dietary diversity lead to micronutrient deficiencies, a phenomenon that has been described as “hidden hunger”. This paper describes determinants of the transition of the current food system, based on land-use analyses and quantitative and qualitative social research at the household, regional and national level. It shows how monetary income and governmental as well as non-governmental development interventions shape food security in this peripheral region. Focusing on the particular example of staple food subsidies through the Indian Public Distribution System, the paper illustrates and discusses how this national-level measure addresses food security and shows the implications for household strategies. Against the background of our findings we argue that tailor-made regional policies and programmes are needed to face the specific challenges in high mountain regions.     

气候暖湿变化对黑河流域绿洲农业生产的影响--测试文章

利用黑河流域上中游6个气象台站1959—2009年气象资料,黑河50年流量资料及张掖市30年小麦、玉米生育资料,探讨流域气候变暖、增湿背景下农业气候条件、水文特征变化对农作物种植结构、作物布局、生育期进程和产量的影响。研究表明：近50年黑河流域增温趋势明显,中、上游地区增温趋势尤为显著,其上游地区倾向率最大,达0.53 ℃·10a^-1,中游地区达0.35 ℃·10a^-1;热量条件好转,≥0℃积温,上游、中游、中下游分别比60年代增加151.1℃、387.6℃、247.3℃;降水趋势中游地区变化平缓,中、上游地区秋、冬两季明显增加,其倾向率中游地区达3.38 mm·10a^-1,上游地区达13.87 mm·10a^-1;气候变暖、增湿有利于农业生产发展,使农业生产潜力增大,但水、热不同季,时空差异大,使易受春旱和春末夏初干旱威胁的高耗水、喜温凉气候的春小麦、水稻等作物产量增长趋势变缓,生育进程加快,发育期缩短,近10年春小麦发育期比20世纪80年代平均缩短了4 d,适宜种植区面积减小,品质下降;而品质好,经济效益高且喜温的玉米、棉花适宜种植区面积扩大,种植海拔上限提升,玉米中晚熟品种种植适宜区上限高度已由海拔1 500 m提升到海拔1 800 m左右,作物发育期延长,近10年发育期比20世纪80年代延长了13 d,产量提高;气候湿润指数呈周期性波动性变化,20世纪80年代中期以前呈波动性上升趋势,以后由于流域内增温幅度大于增湿幅度,水、热增长趋势失衡,使得气候湿润指数缓慢下降。导致高山冰川、积雪融化速度加快,河流来水量增加,水资源过度消耗,对流域内绿洲农业可持续发展影响巨大。     

Culture and food security: a case study of homestead food production in South Africa

Drawing on case study insights from a home gardening program in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa, this study explores the relationship between culture and food security in a local context. Informed by an ideational and a process-oriented understanding of cultural analysis, our inductive approach to field research reveals several elements of culture that have direct impacts on local food production: power, gender, identity and cultural change. The study offers insights into the multi-level dimensions of power as it relates to individuals, households, and broader community dynamics that are central to understanding the local dynamics of food security. Also, the local gardening program played a critical role in maintaining a “culture of farming” at the village level while also navigating important changes to local culture, such as the career preferences of local youth. Research implications include an understanding of the adaptive role that local institutions can play in the food security challenges within South Africa.     

Household food security and biofuel feedstock production in rural Mozambique and Tanzania

The ongoing debate over the impact of biofuels on food security makes it difficult for governments to develop clear policies for an industry that can enhance rural employment and help to alleviate rural poverty, but may also reduce food availability and raise food prices. Whilst there have been many studies reporting a wide range of global commodity price impacts arising from the sharp rise in biofuel use over the past decade, there has been less evidence on food security impacts at a local level in developing countries. Where evidence does exist the impact is difficult to assess, often due to different types of production models and feedstocks, but also due to weaknesses in the methodologies and measures of food security used. This paper aims to help address this evidence gap by analysing household survey data from sites close to different types of biofuel operations in Mozambique and Tanzania, using an index that measures key macronutrient and micronutrient deficits at the household level. The results show that those households with employees in medium to large-scale biofuel feedstock operations achieved significantly higher food security outcomes than other households in the same locations. Furthermore, most of the households with better food security outcomes reported an improvement in food security since the biofuel operations had been established and attributed this mainly to increased and more regular income from salaried employment.     

Food security and poverty in Mexico: the impact of higher global food prices

During the period 2006–2008, general inflation around the world was pressed upwards by food inflation. An important reason for concern about the impact of high food prices arises from the fact that the poorest people spend approximately three quarters of their income on staple foods. In Mexico, meals are based on maize, with tortillas providing much of the caloric intake in rural areas. Prices of maize along with nearly every agricultural commodity sharply increased creating a global food price bubble. Using the Household Income and Expenditure National Survey (Encuesta Nacional de Ingresos y Gastos de los Hogares ENIGH) conducted in 2006 and 2008, it was found that higher prices for maize affected Mexican household living standards and food security both in urban and rural areas. There is an evident decay in household living standards from year 2006 to year 2008. In regional terms, urban areas are better off than rural areas. The poorest rural and urban households—net buyers of maize—were the most affected as their budget share on maize increased significantly. However, higher prices provided direct benefits to maize producers in rural areas at all levels of living. Another effect of higher maize prices was to redistribute income towards maize producer households in the middle and bottom of the rural income distribution.     

The potential effects of demands for natural and safe foods on global food security

There are a number of intersecting and conflicting issues that may require greater oversight than is currently evident:

1. Global food security as defined by FAO, requires that all people have access to adequate supplies of safe, nutritious food of their own choice for healthy living. There is evidence that such amounts of suitable food are being produced in the world today, but not available to all (FAO, 2006).

2. Demands for natural and safe foods and ingredients are expanding and people in the new and developed countries can afford to pay premium prices.

3. Relatively inexpensive air freight allows rapid deliveries of “fresh” and minimally processed food items along extensive supply chains. There are no calculations of environmental costs in evidence.

4. Minimum food processing is demanded, placing a heavy reliance on local safety standards at point of origin and in transit. This can and has created conflict of priorities between improving local safety standards and maintaining profitability. Recent events in China are an important case study.

5. Risks to consumers can escalate as increasing sales demand an expanding range of suppliers and a sometimes expanding supply chain. Failure of any one link can be critical for the chain and its end-user.

6. Opportunities for international suppliers and demands on the production potential of many developing countries can reduce the availability of basic foods to local markets.

7. A new phenomenon has arisen of obesity and starvation occurring simultaneously in the same country (The Australian, 2007), an example of national wealth divergence.

Conclusions

Natural does not mean Safe, particularly with regard to food. Disturbing outcomes during interviews for a local television programme, Catalyst (www.abc.net.au/catalyst, 16 August, 2007), were the extent to which not only the members of the public, but also a General Medical Practitioner, interviewed believed that natural products must be safe. This is an ongoing concern for the food industry and others.Safe food is a term relative to local customs and standards and the further the foods travel from a culture, the greater the need for compliance with accepted international food safety and quality standards. Economic pressures are always likely to compromises in meeting stringent requirements.The demands and freedom of food choice emanating from the growing affluence of some can severely limit the possibilities of food security for others.The International Council for Science (ICSU, www.icsu.org) has a number of programmes in place looking at issues such as Global Environmental Change and Food Systems (GECAFS) and Health and Wellbeing in the Changing Urban Environment (SHWB). Both projects deserve attention.Ultimately, it will depend on each of us and our attitudes as consumers as to how a balance can be obtained between free choice and food security for all. Last month we reached the mid-term of the Millennium Development Goals to reduce the world's hunger by half. We have not met our targets so far and there are signs of harvest difficulties ahead. A more engaging strategy is needed with greater international cooperation. Are we up to the challenge?Free Trade, Fair Trade and Safe Trade are not, after all, equivalent.Food security “Food Security exists when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preference for an active and healthy life.”FAO, 1996.“All substances are poisons: there is none which is not a poison. The right dose differentiates a poison and a remedy.”Paracelsus, 1493–1541.World Food Summit (WFS) and Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) Despite disappointing performances in reducing the number of hungry people, a smaller percentage of the populations of developing countries is undernourished today compared with 1990–92: 17 percent against 20 percent. FAO's projections suggest that the proportion of hungry people in developing countries in 2015 could be about half of what it was in 1990–92: a drop from 20 to 10 percent.Thus the world is on a path to meeting the MDG 1 on hunger reduction but will miss the WFS target by 170 million people.FAO, 2006.