The impact of computer use on cognitive development in young children: A theoretical analysis

Technological innovations of the past have extended our muscles and our senses and have also increased the number and variety of our social interactions. These increased social interactions tend to produce changes in social institutions which in turn affect child rearing and mental development. When young children experience increased social interactions this can have a negative effect upon mental development. Computer technology is unique in that it decreases as well as increases the number and frequency of social interactions. Moreover, only computers increase the number of self-self interactions. If these computer related trends continue, and if technology makes it possible for children to engage in self-self interactions, mental development will be enhanced.     

Social facilitation effects resulting from locus of control using human and computer experimenters

The present experiment was designed to test the hypothesis that people with an internal locus of control (Rotter, 1966) will perform equally well in a paired associate verbal learning task regardless of whether the trials are administered by a computer or human experimenter, while people with an external locus of control will perform better when learning trials are administered by a human experimenter. A computer and a human experimenter were used to test 60 subjects who had been divided into either internal or external locus of control groups in a one-trial-to-learn paired associate task. An analysis of variance confirmed the study's hypothesis, revealing a significant interaction between subjects' locus of control and their performance in the two testing conditions. Implications for the use of the computer in psychological research are discussed.     

Effectiveness of security analyst information accessing strategies: A computer interactive assessment

The present study illustrates how computers can substantially extend the range and ease of application of the behavioral process information monitoring procedures that are increasingly being used to capture and preserve traces of pre-decision information accessing behavior. Employing such an extension, the study examined whether better and poorer decision marker performance was related to differences in the extent and content of information accessing behavior. The results of a computer simulation involving practicing financial security analysts engaged in a securities analysis task revealed that the better performing analysts generally considered slightly greater amounts of information and different types of information than did the poorer performing analysts. These findings are interpreted in terms of the concept of “control schemas” postulated by Kozminsky, Kintsch, and Bourne (1981). A concluding section describes numerous ways in which computers improve upon both the flexibility and validity of traditional research paradigms.     

The behavioral sciences in the computer age

This article proposes that computers are likely to have a major impact on our society in general, and on psychology, psychiatry, sociology and related behavioral sciences in particular. It is argued that the continuing technological improvements being made on computers and their increasingly widespread use in society is likely to affect behavioral scientists in two ways. First, they themselves will become users of computers. Second, they will be called upon to evaluate and help control how computers impact human behavior. Ways of proactively shaping such future developments are discussed.     

A Gestalt perspective on computer simulations of cognitive processes

Impressive computer simulations of the thinking processes of novices confronting problems and powerful programs displaying artificial intelligence in the solution of problems in highly limited domains are among the recent achievements in the application of the modern computer to issues in cognitive psychology. Missing in such work is the crucial step of understanding, that is, grasping both what is crucial in any given problem and why it is crucial. Classical Gestalt analyses of productive thought emphasized precisely this phenomenon of insight. This article summarizes some of the Gestalt concepts and principles in the psychology of problem solving and creative thinking. Modern cognitive psychology has largely ignored, or has found intractable, the phenomenon of achieving an appropriate representation (an understanding) of a problem domain, and, until a more adequate theory of insight is developed, computer models of genuine human thinking and problem solving will remain incomplete. It is proposed that re-examination of the classical Gestalt literature on problem solving and productive thinking may help guide psychologists in fruitful directions in their effort to improve the simulation of complex human cognitive processes, particularly in the domain of problem solving.     

Computer models and the brain

Psychologists and computer enthusiasts have talked at length about the relationships between processing of information by the brain and processing of information by the computer. Models relating the two have been suggested, and attempts to draw analogies between the methods in which a computer would do a task and how the brain works have been frequent. Indeed, it has become popular to discuss brain functions in terms of computer terminology, and to project to the time when computers will duplicate brain processes. The present article discusses some of the difficulties and misassumptions which can arise from such discussions, and discusses those issues which must be addressed by those who wish to use the computer as a substitute for the brain.     

Comparing computerized versus traditional psychological assessment

This study utilized a Latin Squares design to assess the equivalence of computerized testing methods compared to traditional pencil-and-paper formats in a clinical setting. Subjects were given an intake interview and three personality assessment instruments by either of the two administration formats at one week intervals. Subjects also completed a post-assessment evaluation instrument (semantic differential) to gauge their reactions to the testing experience. Data analysis indicated no significant differences between scores on measures of anxiety, depression, and psychological reactance, either across group or administration format. Importantly, while producing comparable results to the pencil-and-paper assessment, the computerized administration was preferred over the pencil-and-paper administration by 85% of the subjects. Discussion emphasizes the implications of this study as support for the use of computerized assessment in applied psychology.     

A comparison of computer administration with standard administration of the MMPI

Administration of the MMPI by microcomputer was compared with administration by standard pencil-paper format. One hundred fifty undergraduate students were given the MMPI twice with an average test-retest interval of one week under one of the following conditions: twice by pencil-paper format, twice by computer, or once by each of these modes of administration. Generally, the computer and pencil-paper formats proved comparable in terms of mean scale scores, test-retest correlations, and stability of high-point codes. Availability of a cannot say (“?”) response key on the computer yielded a significantly greater usage of this response but did not adversely affect clinical scores. Computer administration required substantially less time than pencil-paper administration, and subjects showed a preference for the computer format. Relatively poor high-point code stability was found, regardless of format. In general, computerized administration of the MMPI offers several advantages. There remains a need to extend this investigative methodology to clinical populations.     

Effectiveness of computer-based education in elementary schools

A meta-analysis of 32 comparative studies showed that computer-based education has generally had positive effects on the achievement of elementary school pupils. These effects have been different, however, for programs of off-line computer-managed instruction (CMI) and for interactive computer-assisted instruction (CAI). The average effect in 28 studies of CAI programs was an increase in pupil achievement scores of 0.47 standard deviations, or from the 50th to the 68th percentile. The average effect in four studies of CMI programs, however, was an increase in scores of only 0.07 standard deviations. Study features were not significantly related to study outcomes.     

Emotions and the microcomputer: An exploratory study of young children's responses

The emotional effects of early microcomputer use are of interest to educators and child development researchers. This study took a microanalytic emotion coding system which has been used in basic child development research, and applied it to exploring the effects of computer use on children's emotional responses. Sixteen 5-year-old children were videotaped while using three pieces of software (a drawing program, a face construction program, and a counting program). All three pieces elicited more active, positive, and complex facial expressions than did a comparison segment of television watching. Greater levels of concentration and more socially responsive behavior were also seen in the computer conditions. The drawing program tended to elicit more indicators of concentration and social engagement than the other two, although individual preferences and sample size made conclusions tentative. Results appear to reflect the motivational value of emotions and children's interest in experiences which offer autonomy and control. On the basis of this exploratory study, the methodology seems to have potential for investigating other aspects of children's emotional responses to computers.     

Using computers as contingency managers in self-monitoring interventions: A case study

A computer program was developed to assist in teaching a child the skills of self-observation and self-recording. The computer served as program manager by setting goals, insuring goal rehearsal by the child, providing feedback, dispensing contingent reinforcement with video games, thinning the schedule of reinforcement, and maintaining records of behavioral change. A reversal experimental design showed that the program was effective in reducing out-of-seat behavior.     

Information processing in an urban fire department communication system

One of the most important functions of any fire department is to provide selective contact with fire fighting units and to dispatch these units based on information gathered from street alarm boxes and telephones. This paper is concerned with the problem of dispatching tactical response information to remote fire fighting units and with the effect of workload on the dispatch function.     

Remote sensing applications in the Southeast Sumatra coastal environment

The coastal lowland swamps, rivers and estuarine areas north of Palembang, South Sumatra constitute a resource base likely to be extensively exploited during the next several years. Activities such as swamp forest logging, extensive fisheries, movement of government sponsored transmigrants and Buginese settlers into the area have intensified in recent years. Palembang is an important port which is difficult to maintain at sufficient depth to allow use by deep water ships, thereby creating interest in a coastal port location. In the near future it will be necessary to develop a multiple resource use management strategy based on national priorities, local needs and ecological constraints. Landforms, vegetation patterns, sediment and erosion sites, land use dynamics, settlement patterns and albedo are analysed from a time series of aerial photographs and LANDSAT imagery. The results, correlated with field data, indicate patterns of ecological constraints and resource use dynamics that have implications for development over much of the eastern coast of Sumatra.     

Computer aversion

“Computer phobia,” “computer anxiety” and “computer resistance” are among the labels employed in the popular and professional press to describe the psychological states of individuals who experience aversive reactions to computers. However, little research has been reported in the professional literature and theory-building generally advances no further than discussion of anecdotal reports. This paper reviews the literature on negative reactions to computers and presents a social learning model as a heuristic device to examine psychological aspects of computer aversion. Suggestions for future research and intervention are offered.