Properties of Cookies Made with Natural Wax–Vegetable Oil Organogels

The aim of this study was to examine the feasibility of cookies in which the conventional margarine is replaced with an organogel of vegetable oil (VO) and natural wax. New cookies from VO organogels contain no trans fats and much less saturated fats than cookies made with a conventional margarine. To understand the effects of different kinds of waxes, organogels were prepared from 4 different waxes including sunflower wax (SW), rice bran wax (RBW), beeswax, and candelilla wax and properties of cookie dough and cookie were evaluated. To investigate the effects of different VOs on the properties of cookies, 3 VOs including olive oil, soybean oil and flaxseed oil representing oils rich in oleic acid (18:1), linoleic acid (18:2), and linolenic acid (18:3), respectively, were used. Both the wax and VO significantly affected properties of organogel such as firmness and melting behavior shown in differential scanning calorimetry. The highest firmness of organogel was observed with SW and flaxseed oil. Properties of dough such as hardness and melting behavior were also significantly affected by wax and VO while trends were somewhat different from those for organogels. SW and RBW provided greatest hardnesses to cookie dough. However, hardness, spread factor, and fracturability of cookie containing the wax–VO organogel were not significantly affected by different waxes and VOs. Several cookies made with wax–VO organogels showed similar properties to cookies made with a commercial margarine. Therefore, this study shows the high feasibility of utilization of the organogel technology in real foods such as cookies rich in unsaturated fats.     

Oxidative stability of solid fats containing ethylcellulose determined based on the headspace oxygen content

Solid fat was developed by blending fully hydrogenated soybean oil, palm oil, and canola oil, and organogels were prepared using selected solid fats and ethylcellulose. The oxidative stability of organogel was tested at 100 and 180°C using a headspace oxygen assay. Addition of ethylcellulose produced a firmer organogel solid state in selected solid fats ranging from 15.8 to 24.6% saturation at room temperature. Addition of ethylcellulose generally decreased the oxidative stability of organogels prepared using canola oil. The oxidative stability of some organogels made using solid fats changed depending on the concentration of added ethylcellulose (10 or 15%, w/w), and the oxidation temperature. Development of an organogel with a relatively low saturation and a high oxidative stability suitable as a food ingredient is possible.     

Effects of pre‐emulsifying fat/oil on meat batter stability,texture and microstructure

The effects of pre‐emulsified beef fat and canola oil (CO) (25%) with Tween 80 (T‐80) or sodium caseinate (SC) were studied in beef meat batters prepared at three protein levels (9%, 12% and 15%). Raising meat protein level to 15% resulted in low emulsion stability of products prepared with CO. Using pre‐emulsified beef fat with Tween 80 (BF‐T80) showed significantly higher fat and water losses at all protein levels. There were no differences in fat and water losses between pre‐emulsified beef fat and CO when SC was used at the 9% and 12% protein levels compared to the controls (non pre‐emulsification). Light microscopy revealed fat globule coalescence in the CO meat batters prepared with 15% protein and BF‐T8 treatments, as well as formation of fat channels and more protein aggregation; both resulted in lower emulsion stability. Using SC to emulsify fat/oil produced a finer dispersion of fat globules compared to all the other treatments.     

Organogelators as a Saturated Fat Replacer for Structuring Edible Oils

Fats are among the most vital macronutrients that are needed to keep your body healthy. While eating moderate amounts is beneficial, excessive intake of fats can cause serious complications such as cancer and other cardiovascular diseases. These problems can be reduced by substituting the saturated and trans fats with mono- and poly-unsaturated fats. Unfortunately, these substitutions do not provide the desired texture and other physical properties in the final product. So to solve this issue, the concept of “organogels” was introduced. Structuring of edible oil is becoming a potential strategy to reduce/eliminate the trans/saturated fats. Researchers are working to introduce fat like properties in these liquid oils by different strategies like imparting some compounds in oil which leads to its gelation. This review provides a detailed study on the organogel’s building blocks, its structuring techniques, organogelator’s effects, problems associated with the development of organogels, and their solutions. Applications of organogels in different fields of life and particularly in the food industry are also discussed. Efforts are required to develop analytical methods for understanding the underlying mechanisms of structuring organogels and to explore more food grade organogelators.     

Effects of interesterified vegetable oils and sugarbeet fiber on the quality of frankfurters

The effects of interesterified vegetable oils (IVOs) prepared from palm, cottonseed and olive oil, respectively, and sugarbeet fiber (SBF) on quality of frankfurters have been studied. Beef fat (10%) was replaced by one of the IVOs for 60% and 100%. Incorporation of IVOs in frankfurters improved the nutritional content of product due to altering the fatty acid composition. The oleic acid content of frankfurters increased from 28.76% to 45.57% and 47.15% as the interesterified palm oil (IPO) and interesterified olive oil (IOO) contents increased from 0% to 10% and 6%, respectively. The linoleic acid contents of 6% and 10% interesterified cottonseed oil (ICO) added frankfurters were, respectively, 10- and 19.6-fold higher than treatments without ICO. Addition of SBF (<425 μm size and 1% level) significantly increased (p<0.05) the total dietary fiber content and water-holding capacity (WHC) of frankfurters. Incorporation of IVOs and SBF did not lead to significant changes in appearance, colour, texture, flavour or sensory scores. It is concluded that IVOs and SBF may be successfully applied as beef fat substitute in frankfurters since this combination offset some of the changes brought about by beef fat replacement.     

Comparative Analysis of Olive Oil Organogels Containing Beeswax and Sunflower Wax with Breakfast Margarine

The purpose of this research was to develop olive oil organogels with sunflower wax (SW) and beeswax (BW) at 3%, 7%, and 10% addition levels and to compare these organogels with breakfast margarine (BM). The organogels and BM sample were stored at 2 different temperatures (4 and 20 °C), and the peroxide values (PVs) and textural properties were monitored for 3 mo. The PVs of all organogels were within legal limits and the gels were structurally stable throughout the storage period. The textural properties of 3% SW and 7% BW organogels were closely similar to BM. The solid fat contents of the organogels were lower than that of the BM. Moreover, the thermal properties of 3% BW gel were more similar to that of the BM. The results of X‐ray diffraction peaks, approximately 3.70 and 4.10 Å, were similar to β′ polymorphic form. In conclusion, both of the organogel types may have value in replacing BMs.     

Monoglyceride organogels developed in vegetable oil with and without ethylcellulose

We used two commercial monoglycerides (MGs) with different composition (SKB, ≈ 79% glycerol monostearate and ≈ 12% glycerol monopalmitate; PKB, ≈ 47% glycerol monostearate and 47% glycerol monopalmitate) to develop organogels [2% and 8% (wt/wt) MG content]. The objective was to investigate the effect of shearing (SH) and the presence of 6% ethylcellulose (EC) as factors to limit the sub-α to β polymorphic transition of MG, and the subsequent crystals agglomeration that results in deleterious effect on the organogel's mechanical and oil-binding properties. The results showed that under static conditions (ST) both type of MG developed organogels (OG), but their structure, measured as the complex modulus (G*), was weak particularly in the organogels formulated with PKB at 2%. Nevertheless, the OG-ST had higher strength and lower oil loss than the OG-SH. The X-ray analysis showed that the use of shear during organogelation reduced the time at which the sub-α to β polymorphic transition occurred in both the SKB and the PKB oleogels. Additionally, shearing seemed to hinder the formation of well-organized microplatelet structure, and from there the lack of gelation in the 2% OG-SH and the higher oil loss of the 8% OG-SH compared with their static counterparts. Independent of the concentration of SKB and PKB, the presence of EC resulted in organogels with higher G* than that for OG-ST without EC. This, in spite the EC concentration used was below the critical concentration for vegetable oil gelation. The results showed that EC slowed the rate for the sub-α to β polymorphic transition in the MG organogels. Thus, irrespective of the type of MG and the concentration used, during 14 days of storage at 15 °C the OG-EC systems showed a lower oil loss as a function of time than the corresponding organogels developed without EC. This was particularly evident in the organogels formulated with SKB and those formulated with 8% of MG. We suggest that EC limits the molecular mobility in the MG organogels, and therefore, slows the sub-α to β polymorphic transition and the subsequent β crystals' agglomeration. The results showed that there is a synergistic interaction between MG and EC that result in organogels with higher viscoelastic properties and lower oil loss than those observed in MG-organogels without EC.     

Dietary Effects of Frankfurters with Added Beef Fat and Peanut Oil

Beef frankfurters containing 12% or 29% fat, either all beef fat or 40% beef fat plus 60% peanut oil, were fed to rabbits, resulting in a significant increase in serum cholesterol and triglyceride levels compared to rabbits fed rabbit chow. The absolute increase and rate of increase in triglyceride levels were affected by the amount of fat but not by the presence or absence of peanut oil. Cholesterol levels were not significantly different in animals fed frankfurters containing 12% or 29% beef fat except at 4 wk; the inclusion of peanut oil in the frankfurters significantly lowered serum cholesterol levels .at 5 and 6 wk. Overall, frankfurters containing 12% final fat with 60% peanut oil substitution had the least hyperlipidemic effect.     

Influence of Bacterial Cellulose (nata) on the Physicochemical and Sensory Properties of Frankfurter

The physicochemical and sensory characteristics of pork frankfurters containing different levels (10% to 30%) of bacterial cellulose (nata) were evaluated. Emulsion stability of the raw meat batter decreased with the addition of nata. For nata‐added treatments, increasing levels of nata in frankfurters resulted in decreased textural hardness and shear values. Sensory results indicated that N10 and N20 had significantly higher firmness scores than N30 and control. However, juiciness score did not differ for all treatments. Incorporation of nata at lower levels (10% to 20%) did not have detrimental effects on the physicochemical, textural, sensory, and microbiological properties of regular‐fat frankfurters. Addition of a higher level (30%) of nata essentially produced comparable sensory properties to the control, but lower levels of nata in frankfurters yielded higher sensory firmness and instrumental hardness values. Based on the composite results, manufacture of regular‐fat frankfurter containing 10% to 20% high‐fiber nata resulted in product quality comparable to the control.     

Emulsion Stability and Sensory Quality of Beef Frankfurters Produced at Different Fat or Peanut Oil Levels

Frankfurters were produced at 12, 20 and 29% fat levels using beef fat or 60% substitution with peanut oil. Less emulsion stability, lower smokehouse yield and lower sensory juiciness scores were found as final fat content of beef frankfurters was lowered to 12%. Firmness, darkening of external color, and flavor intensity were enhanced in the low fat product. Frankfurters with 60% fat as peanut oil exhibited comparable emulsion stability and sensory quality parameters with no rancid flavor development over a period of 6 weeks at 4°C. They were as acceptable to sensory panels as the 29% beef fat frankfurters. Substitution of 60% of the beef fat with peanut oil resulted in a product with significantly (P < 0.05) less cholesterol content.     

以多糖为基质的脂肪模拟物替代动物脂肪在法兰克福香肠中的应用

将以多糖（魔芋粉、κ-卡拉胶和大麦β-葡聚糖）为基质的脂肪模拟物分别以20%、40%、60%和80%的比例替代猪脂肪用于法兰克福香肠生产中,探讨猪脂肪的不同替代比例对法兰克福香肠品质特性和感官特性的影响。结果表明,随着脂肪模拟物替代比例的增加,香肠的水分含量和碳水化合物含量显著增加（P<0.05）,而总脂质含量、蛋白含量、灰分含量、能量值和脂肪卡路里值显著降低（P<0.05）。而且,随着脂肪替代物替代量的增加,香肠的蒸煮损失率、乳化稳定性显著降低（P<0.05）,亮度值增加,硬度以及咀嚼性降低。另外,低场核磁结果表明替代脂肪能够显著缩短香肠的弛豫时间（P<0.05）,说明其能增强蛋白质网络对水分子的束缚能力。然而,较高的脂肪替代比例（60%和80%）显著降低肉糜在加热终点的储能模量（G′）和损失模量（G′′）（ P<0.05）,而且降低了法兰克福香肠的总体可接受性。上述研究结果表明,以多糖为基质的脂肪模拟物能够在法兰克福香肠中部分替代猪脂肪,且以40%的替代比例为最佳。     

Storage stability of cod liver oil organogels formed with beeswax and carnauba wax

In this study, organogels of cod liver oil (CLO) with beeswax (BW) and carnauba wax (CW) were prepared, and compared with a commercial margarine (CM). Oil binding capacities (OBC) of BW organogels were over 99%, while CW had a maximum OBC value of 91.28%. Crystal formation time of BW was shorter. Although the highest solid fat content (SFC) was in the 10% CW containing sample (8.69%), it was 28.99% in the CM sample at 20 °C. The peak melting temperature of CM was 43.70 °C, and BW organogel at 3% addition had the closest values (45.42 °C). Firmness and stickiness values of the organogels were lower than that of CM sample. No significant change in the texture parameters during storage was detected, indicating good stability. There was no hurdle against oxidation by organogelation during storage. This study has shown that CLO organogels can be suitable spreadable products.     

EFFECT OF CARRAGEENAN ON PROCESSING AND QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS OF LOW-FAT FRANKFURTERS

Three types of carrageenan (K, I, K+I) × 4 levels (0, 0.25, 0.5 and 1.0%) were evaluated with a complete factorial design to characterize the effect of carrageenans on processing and quality characteristics of low-fat frankfurters (9% fat, 13% protein). l-Carrageenan at 0.5–1.0% level appeared to be more beneficial for the production of low-fat frankfurters. It reduced (P<0.05) the hardness of the skin and contributed to a softer (P<0.05) product and higher overall acceptability. Low-fat frankfurters (9% fat) manufactured with I-carrageenan (IC) or in combination with finely ground toasted bread (TB), isolated soy protein (ISP) and pork skin (PSK), were compared to high-fat (27% fat, 11% protein) and to low-fat (9% fat, 13% protein) control frankfurters prepared with 3.5% potato starch (PS), as well as with commercial frankfurters (25% fat, 11.6% protein, 4.5% starch). Frankfurters with IC had higher (P<0.05) moisture, softer (P<0.05) skin and the highest (P<0.05) separation of gelatin. However, textural properties and overall acceptability were similar (P>0.05) to commercial and high-fat control frankfurters. Addition of TB had no significant effect. Use of ISP and PSK improved (P<0.05) the water-binding capacity but negatively affected the overall acceptability of frankfurters.     

Optimizing palm oil and palm stearin utilization for sensory and textural properties of chicken frankfurters

This study was designed to explore the potential of refined, bleached and deodorized (RBD) palm oil (PO) and palm stearin (POs) utilization in chicken frankfurters. A 10 points augmented simplex-centroid design was used to study the effect of chicken fat (CF), PO and POs as well as the interaction of these fats on the emulsion, textural and sensory properties of chicken frankfurters. All frankfurters were formulated to contain approx 25% fat, 52% moisture and 10% protein. No significant difference was found in end chopping temperatures of all meat batters even though the temperature of PO and POs upon incorporation into meat batters was 50°C higher than CF. Strong emulsions were formed as no fluid losses were observed in all the meat batters tested after heating. Texture profiles of the frankfurters containing PO and/or CF were quite similar, but increment of POs raised hardness, chewiness, and shear hardness of the frankfurters. Acceptability of the frankfurters was evaluated using hedonic test. Panelists found no difference in hardness preference between frankfurters made from totally CF and PO, while frankfurters made from POs were rated as hard and brittle. CF was important in determining acceptability of the frankfurters, as reduction of CF in formulation resulted in lower scores in chicken flavor, juiciness, oiliness and overall acceptance of the frankfurters. Frankfurters with sensory acceptability comparable to a commercial one were found to comprise of more than 17% CF, and less than 67% PO and 17% POs of the fat blend.     

COMPUTER‐CONTROLLED MICROWAVE HEATING TO IN‐PACKAGE PASTEURIZE BEEF FRANKFURTERS FOR ELIMINATION OF LISTERIA MONOCYTOGENES†

The objective of this study was to develop an in‐package pasteurization technology to kill Listeria monocytogenes in ready‐to‐eat meats using microwave heating. This technology utilized an infrared sensor to monitor the surface temperature of beef frankfurters during microwave heating. The aim was to increase the surface temperature of frankfurters to a set point lethal to L. monocytogenes. A feedback control mechanism was used to control the power to the microwave oven. Results indicated that the simple on‐off control mechanism was able to maintain the surface temperature of beef frankfurters near the respective set points of 75, 80 or 85C used in this study. This pasteurization process was able to achieve a 7‐log reduction of L. monocytogenes in inoculated beef frankfurters using a 600‐W nominally rated microwave oven within 12–15 min. If optimized, this system may provide the food industry with a terminal, postlethality pasteurization technology to kill L. monocytogenes in ready‐to‐eat meats within the final packages.     

Reducing sodium levels in frankfurters using a natural flavor enhancer

Sodium chloride (NaCl; salt) contributes to important quality and food safety properties of processed meats. However, renewed interest exists in reducing sodium in the human diet. This study investigated quality and sensory impacts associated with partial replacement and/or reduction of normally added NaCl using a natural flavor enhancer (NFE) in frankfurters. Varying levels of NFE were used with NaCl and/or potassium chloride (KCl) to comprise treatments (TRT) which investigated flake salt replacement (Phase I) and sodium reduction (Phases II and III). Phase I sensory and quality results identified a 50% replacement of NaCl with NFE as the baseline for subsequent phases. Phase II indicated that the inclusion of NFE could allow for a 20% NaCl reduction without adverse effects on quality or sensory attributes. Phase III results demonstrated that it was feasible to reduce NaCl by 35% via the inclusion of KCl in NFE containing frankfurters without major quality or sensory changes.     

葵花籽油凝胶油的制备及其在冰淇淋中的应用

以葵花籽油为原料,添加一定量的蜂蜡或蜂蜡与谷维素混合物制备葵花籽油凝胶油,研究不同添加量的凝胶因子对葵花籽油凝胶油的硬度值、黏度值、持油性和微观形态的影响;将得到的凝胶油代替黄油制备冰淇淋,研究其在冰淇淋中的应用。结果表明:蜂蜡添加量对凝胶油的质构特性、持油性和微观形态影响较为显著,并确定5%蜂蜡添加量为凝胶油制备的最优条件;添加5%复合凝胶油(5%蜂蜡+1%谷维素)和5%黄油制备的冰淇淋营养丰富、抗融性好、色泽均匀、组织细腻、滑润爽口,与添加10%黄油制备的冰淇淋较为相近,表明可以通过进一步的优化代替饱和脂肪在冰淇淋中应用。     

Determination of Ascorbic Acid, Erythorbic Acid, and Uric Acid in Cured Meats by High Performance Liquid Chromatography

A paired-ion reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatographic procedure with amperometric detection was applied to the determination of ascorbic acid (AA), erythorbic acid (EA), and uric acid (UA) in 5% meta-phosphoric acid extracts of beef bologna, beef frankfurters, bacon, and ham cured with AA or EA. AA concentrations (mg/ g meat) ranged from 0.008 in EA-cured beef frankfurters to 0.584 in AA-cured bacon. EA concentrations ranged from 0.149 in EA-cured beef frankfurters to 0.545 in EA-cured bacon. UA was quantified only in EA-cured bologna and frankfurters with 0.013 and 0.010 mg/g, respectively. Correlations of total ascorbate (AA + EA) by HPLC with fluorometric and calorimetric procedures were 0.992 and 0.988, respectively.     

Optimization of salt, olive oil and pectin level for low-fat frankfurters produced by replacing pork backfat with olive oil

Response surface methodology was used to determine the optimum salt level (1.3-2.1%) and pectin level (0.25-1.0%) when olive oil replaced pork backfat (0-100%) for the production of highly acceptable low-fat frankfurters (9% fat, 13% protein). The test ingredients significantly affected (P<0.05) jelly separation of the batter, skin strength, hardness, saltiness, odour and taste and the overall acceptability of the low-fat frankfurters. Batters with high pectin levels recorded the highest (P<0.05) jelly separation. Low-fat frankfurters with high salt levels tended to have very hard skins and increased (P<0.05) saltiness while those with a high pectin level were very soft, tasted like cream and had the lowest (P<0.05) score for odour and taste. The low-fat frankfurters with 1.8-2.1% salt, 0-35% olive oil and 0.25-0.45% pectin had the highest overall acceptability. However, low-fat frankfurters produced with 1.3% salt, 0.25-0.30% pectin and 80-100% olive oil were also acceptable. Such low-fat frankfurters, compared to commercial products, have a 48% lower salt content (from 2.5 to 1.3%) and 66.6% lower fat content (from 30 to 10%), in which 80-100% of the added fat is olive oil. Further research is needed to improve the acceptability of these frankfurters.