Phenotypic Characterization and Genotypic Subtyping of Salmonella enterica Serovars Enteritidis and Gallinarum Isolated from Human and Poultry-Related Samples

This study aimed to assess the serotypes, antibiotic susceptibility, and molecular subtyping of Salmonella enterica isolated from food products and human patients with gastroenteritis. A total of 59 isolates were investigated, and the results revealed a predominance of S. Enteritidis with 57.63% (34/59) S. Gallinarum held second with 15.62% (5/32) of total food borne. While, isolates from humans showed 18.51% (5/27) of S. Typhimurium. High level of resistance to nalidixic acid was noted among food strains and 35.29% of human isolates were found to be multidrug resistant. Eight representative isolates were subtyping using three molecular approaches, ribotyping, Multilocus sequence typing (MLST) and Multiple-locus variable number tandem repeat analysis (MLVA). MLST showed three sequence types corresponding to two clonal complexes, (ST-78, CC-4) for S. Gallinarum, (ST-11, CC-4) for S. Enteritidis and (S-367, CC-37) for S. Cerro. While, MLVA generated six different profiles targeting nine loci for S. Enteritidis and S. Gallinarum.     

Prevalence of Virulence Genes in Extended‐Spectrum β‐lactamases (ESBLs)‐Producing Salmonella in Retail Raw Chicken in China

Extended‐spectrum β‐lactamases (ESBLs)‐producing Salmonella is a tremendous hazard to food safety and public health. The objective of this study was to determine the prevalence of 30 virulence genes (avrA, sipA, sseC, marT, rhuM, siiE, pipA, pipD, envR, gogB, gtgA, sodC1, sseI, irsA, sopE2, spvC, rck, spvR, fhuA, msgA, pagK, srfj, stkc, fimA, lpfD, pefA, stcC, steB, stjB, and tcfA) in 156 ESBLs‐producing Salmonella isolates that belonged to 21 serotypes. These isolates were recovered from retail raw chicken samples collected from 5 provinces and 2 national cities in China between 2007 and 2012. The results indicated that 154 (98.7%) ESBLs‐producing Salmonella isolates carried at least 1 virulence gene, 138 (88.5%) simultaneously carried at least 5 virulence genes, 107 (68.6%) carried 10 or more, and 20 (12.8%) carried 15 or more virulence genes. The most frequently detected virulence genes were marT (n = 127, 81.4%), siiE (n = 126, 80.8%), msgA (n = 121, 77.6%), and sipA (n = 121, 77.6%). Significant difference was identified between detection percentages of virulence genes of rhuM, pipD, envR, sopE2, pagK, lpfD, steB, and stjB in S. Indiana, S. Thompson, S. Enteritidis, S. Typhimurium, S. Shubra, S. Edinburg, and S. Agona isolates. Distribution of virulence genes were significantly influenced by sampling districts (P < 0.01), especially for sodC1 and pipD, and then were msgA and sopE2. The heatmap showed the frequencies of virulence genes in ESBLs‐producing isolates from retail chickens in southern, central, and northern regions of China were completely different from each other. Based on our findings, ESBLs‐producing Salmonella of retail chicken origin were common carriers of multiple virulence genes and were regionally distributed.     

Prevalence and Characteristics of Enterotoxin B‐Producing Staphylococcus aureus Isolated from Food Sources: A Particular Cluster of ST188 Strains was Identified

The aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence and characteristics of staphylococcal enterotoxin B (SEB) producing Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) isolated from food sources. A total of 412 S. aureus isolates were recovered from 1970 milk and dairy samples (n = 236) and 2450 meat samples (n = 176) in China from 2009 to 2014. Of the 412 isolates, 124 isolates were tested positive for 1 or more classical staphylococcal enterotoxin (SE) genes using PCR, and 31 isolates were positive for seb gene and further proved to be SEB‐producing. Four SE profiles were observed among 31 SEB‐producing isolates when investigated using ELISA kit, that is, SEB (16 isolates), SEA+SEB (6 isolates), SEB+SEC (6 isolates), and SEB+SED (3 isolates). Thirteen sequence types (STs) were identified in the 31 SEB‐producing S. aureus isolates using multilocus sequence typing (MLST). The 3 most detected STs were ST1 (7 isolates), ST188 (6 isolates), ST59 (3 isolates). Two distinct clusters were identified by pulsed‐field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), each of which showed excellent consistency with ST188 and ST1 achieved by MLST, respectively. In summary, this study reveals that various SE profiles are observed in SEB‐producing S. aureus isolates and the great part of SEB‐producing S. aureus isolates are showed as clusters. Especially, a particular cluster of ST188 strains was observed in SEB‐producing S. aureus isolates which was associated with outbreaks of SFP and needs further attention.     

Characterization of Salmonella Enteritidis isolated from human samples

This study aimed to characterize Salmonella Enteritidis (SE) isolated from blood (n = 12) and feces (n = 68) of salmonellosis victims in Southern Brazil. All isolates were submitted to antimicrobial susceptibility testing, PCR-ribotyping, and XbaI macrorestriction Pulsed-Field Gel Eletrophoresis (PFGE). Results demonstrated high levels of ampicillin and nalidixic acid resistance, and strains isolated in different geographic regions were clustered together, presenting a common resistance profile. All strains demonstrated similar and related PCR-ribotyping patterns (R1, R2, and R3); being that the predominant profile R1 grouped 47.5% of the strains. PFGE profile P1 grouped the majority of the strains (96.25%), suggesting a clonal relationship among the strains or inability of molecular typing methods to discriminate strains of this serovar. Results suggested on an increase in antimicrobial resistance and that strains of S. Enteritidis with similar PFGE and PCR-ribotyping profiles were involved in several salmonellosis outbreaks in Southern Brazil.     

High Intensity Ultrasound for Salmonella Enteritidis Inactivation in Culture and Liquid Whole Eggs

High intensity ultrasound (HIU) continues to be researched as a nonthermal inactivation technology of appeal to food manufacturers. The advantages of HIU include maintenance of product quality, freshness, product homogenization, along with simultaneous inactivation of pathogens. Besides, it is simple, relatively inexpensive, and easily adaptable to most processing environments. This study investigated the effect of HIU for Salmonella Enteritidis inactivation in culture and liquid whole eggs (LWEs) to decrease egg‐associated outbreaks. Overnight S. Enteritidis cultures and spiked LWE (both at 8 log CFU/mL) were treated with 20‐kHz HIU for 0, 1, 5, 10, and 30 min (n = 6) in a temperature‐controlled system, not to exceed 20 °C, and replicated thrice. At each time point, samples were enumerated on XLT4 agar and morphologically analyzed using scanning electron microscopy, with measurements of color and rheological properties. Our results revealed significant reduction of healthy S. Enteritidis cells up to 3.6 log CFU/mL and 2.3 log CFU/25 mL after HIU treatment of merely 10 min of overnight culture and 30 min in LWE, respectively (P < 0.05). After 5 and 10‐min HIU treatment, significant reduction of 1.4‐log CFU/25 mL healthy S. Enteritidis in LWE was obtained (P < 0.05). Even at 1‐min exposure time, HIU showed significant 1.9 log CFU/mL reduction of cultures (P < 0.05); however, no log‐reduction was observed in LWE after 1 min. Scanning electron micrographs showed increased cell structural damage using longer HIU exposure. For product color changes, lower redness and yellowness of LWE were observed visually and instrumentally after 5‐min HIU treatment (P < 0.05). The rheological properties of LWE measured at 0 to 200 s^?1 shear rate, showed that shear stress of HIU‐treated LWEs decreased after 5‐min HIU exposure, but increased after 30‐min treatment. This study demonstrated that HIU shows promise for rapid Salmonella control in LWE and other liquid foods, as an alternative inactivation method for use in hurdle approaches.     

Characterization of Extended Spectrum Β‐Lactamase Producing Enterobacteria and Methicillin‐Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Isolated from Raw Pork and Cooked Pork Products in South China

In this study, we assessed the co‐colonization with extended spectrum β‐lactamase producing Enterobacteria (ESBL‐E) and methicillin‐resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in raw pork and cooked pork products in south China. In total, 240 raw pork and 240 cooked pork samples collected from supermarkets (n = 20) and local butcher shops (n = 20) in the city of Guangzhou (China) were investigated. Raw pork and cooked pork was more frequent colonization with ESBL‐E (7.5% in raw pork and 0.4% in cooked pork products) than with MRSA (4.2% in raw pork). Two of samples were contaminated with both tested types of multidrug‐resistant bacteria. High antibiotic‐resistance rate with wide spectrums of both ESBL‐E and MRSA isolated were observed. In ESBL‐E isolates, TEM (n = 15), CTX‐M‐1 (n = 3), CTX‐M‐9 (n = 1), and SHV (n = 1) genes were detected. TEM and SHV genes were associated with CTX‐M‐1 in 2 isolates, respectively. The CTX‐M‐9 gene of 1 isolate from cooked pork samples was found to be transferred to Escherichia coli J53 by conjugation. Detected MLST‐types of MRSA were livestock‐associated ST7 (n = 5) and ST9 (n = 4), as well as hospital‐acquired ST239 (n = 1), suggesting contamination from human source(s) during meat processing. These findings confirmed a contamination of raw pork and cooked pork with ESBL‐E and MRSA and emphasized the necessity of enforcing hygienic practices and specific detection of MRSA and ESBL‐producing bacteria in meat processing and storage.     

Comparative physiology and fermentation performance of Saaz and Frohberg lager yeast strains and the parental species Saccharomyces eubayanus

Two distinct genetic groups (Saaz and Frohberg) exist within the hybrid Saccharomyces pastorianus (S. cerevisiae × S. eubayanus) taxon. However, physiological/technological differences that exist between the two groups are not known. Fermentative capability of the parental S. eubayanus has likewise never been studied. Here, 58 lager strains were screened to determine which hybrid group they belonged to, and selected strains were characterized to determine salient characteristics. In 15 °P all‐malt wort fermentations at 22 °C, Frohberg strains showed greater growth and superior fermentation (80% apparent attenuation, 6.5% alcohol by volume in 3–4 days) compared to all other strains and maintained highest viability values (>93%). Fermentation with S. eubayanus was poor at the same temperature (33% apparent attenuation, 2.7% alcohol by volume at 6 days and viability reduced to 75%). Saaz strains and S. eubayanus were the least sensitive to cold (10 °C), though this did not translate to greater fermentation performance. Fermentation with S. eubayanus was poor at 10 °C but equal to or greater than that of the Saaz strains. Performance of Saaz yeast/S. eubayanus was limited by an inability to use wort maltotriose. [¹⁴C]‐Maltotriose transport assays also showed negligible activity in these strains (≤0.5 µmol min^?1 g^?1 dry yeast). Beers from Saaz fermentations were characterized by two‐ to sixfold lower production of the flavour compounds methyl butanol, ethyl acetate and 3‐methylbutyl acetate compared to Frohberg strains. Higher alcohol and ester production by S. eubayanus was similar to that of Frohberg strains. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Prevalence of Salmonella serotypes S. Enteritidis and S. Typhimurium in poultry and poultry products

Salmonella continues to be a major food safety and public health threat. In the present study, Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serotypes Enteritidis (SE) and Typhimurium (ST) were isolated from poultry and characterized for virulence, antimicrobial susceptibility, and biofilm formation. Prevalence of Salmonella serotypes in poultry was 3.35%; predominant serotypes isolated were S. Enteritidis (68.1%) and S. Typhimurium (31.8%). Source-wise, Salmonella were isolated from retail market chicken meat (4.8%), live chicken at farm (2.5%), and table eggs (2.1%). Salmonella isolates produced invA gene of 284 bp (100%), spvR gene of 310 bp (77.27%), spvC gene of 571 bp (22.72%), and stn gene of 260 bp (100%) as virulence/ pathogenicity determinants. Salmonella isolates exhibited resistance to common antimicrobials; 72.7% isolates showed multiple resistance (≥3 antimicrobial class), highest resistance was observed for polymyxin-B (81.8%) followed by nalidixic acid (72.7%), colistin (59.1%), ampicillin/tetracyline (45.5%), ampicillin + sulbactam (40.9%), cefodroxil (18.2%), streptomycin (9.1%), and cefazidine/ceftriaxone-tazobactam (4.5%). Multiple antimicrobial resistance (MAR) index of poultry Salmonella isolates ranged from 0.11 to 0.35; wherein, 59.1% isolates showed MAR of >0.2. About 81.8% Salmonella isolates produced biofilm and were categorized as strong (13.6%), moderate (45.4%), and weak (22.7%) biofilm producers. Occurrence of antimicrobial resistant virulent Salmonella strains in poultry requires implementation of suitable strategies so as to protect the public health.     

Aneuploidy,copy number variation and unique chromosomal structures in bottom‐fermenting yeast revealed by array‐CGH

DNA microarray for comparative genome hybridization (CGH) of bottom‐fermenting yeast was performed based on our in‐house DNA sequence data. Aneuploidy, copy number variation and unique chromosomal structures were observed among bottom‐fermenting yeast strains. Our array experiments revealed a correlation between copy number variation and mRNA expression levels. Chromosomal structures in a Saccharomyces carlsbergensis‐type strain and in a S. monacensis‐type strain that both belong to S. pastorianus phylogenetically differed greatly from those in contemporary industrial bottom‐fermenting yeast strains. The knowledge gained in this study contributes to a more precise genomic characterization of bottom‐fermenting yeast strains. Copyright © 2014 The Institute of Brewing & Distilling     

Multiplex PCR for the simultaneous detection of Salmonella spp. and Salmonella Enteritidis in food

Multiplex PCR assay (mPCR) for the detection of Salmonella spp. and S. Enteritidis was developed in this study using artificially contaminated chicken carcasses. The assay showed 100% specificity to detect approximately 1 CFU of Salmonella in 10 g of chicken skin after non‐selective enrichment. The mPCR was evaluated in Minas cheese, fresh pork sausage and chicken carcasses commercially available. Salmonella spp. was detected in nine of sixty‐six chicken carcasses, five of fifty‐two cheese samples, and five of fifty‐two sausage samples. The serovar Enteritidis was detected in two samples of contaminated sausage. The mPCR results were confirmed by conventional culture and biochemical identification of the isolates. Serotyping confirmed the presence of S. Enteritidis in sausage samples and showed contamination by serovars Schwarzengrund and Montevideo in chicken carcasses.     

Inactivation of Salmonella in Shell Eggs by Hot Water Immersion and Its Effect on Quality

Thermal inactivation kinetics of heat resistant strains of Salmonella Enteritidis in shell eggs processed by hot water immersion were determined and the effects of the processing on egg quality were evaluated. Shell eggs were inoculated with a composite of heat resistant Salmonella Enteritidis (SE) strains PT8 C405, 2 (FSIS #OB030832), and 6 (FSIS #OB040159). Eggs were immersed in a circulating hot water bath for various times and temperatures. Come‐up time of the coldest location within the egg was 21 min. SE was reduced by 4.5 log at both hot water immersion treatments of 56.7 C for 60 min and 55.6 °C for 100 min. Decimal reduction times (D‐values) at 54.4, 55.6, and 56.7 °C were 51.8, 14.6, and 9.33 min, respectively. The z‐value was 3.07 °C. Following treatments that resulted in a 4.5 log reduction (56.7 °C/60 min and 55.6 °C/100 min), the surviving population of SE remained static during 4 wk of refrigerated storage. After processing under conditions resulting in 4.5 log reductions, the Haugh unit and albumen height significantly increased (P < 0.01) and yolk index significantly decreased (P < 0.05). The shell dynamic stiffness significantly increased (P < 0.05), while static compression shell strength showed no significant difference (P < 0.05). Vitelline membrane strength significantly increased (P < 0.05); although, no significant difference (P < 0.05) was observed in vitelline membrane elasticity. In summary, the hot water immersion process inactivated heat resistant SE in shell eggs by 4.5 log, but also significantly affected several egg quality characteristics.     

Phenotypic and genotypic characterization of salmonella Enteritidis isolated from two consecutive Food-Poisoning outbreaks in Sichuan,China

Salmonella enterica serotype Enteritidis (SE) is a primary pathogen that causes foodborne diseases in humans. Although whole-genome sequencing (WGS) -based typing analyses have been increasingly used to investigate food-poisoning outbreaks, they are rarely applied to the epidemiology of multiple Salmonella outbreaks in Sichuan, China. This study therefore isolated SE from patients and food of two consecutive food-poisoning outbreaks during 2020 in Sichuan, China. We tracked outbreak origin using epidemiological investigation, serotyping, antimicrobial susceptibility testing (AST), pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), and WGS. We also determined phylogenetic relationships using PFGE, whole and core genome multilocus sequence typing (wg/cgMLST), and whole-genome single nucleotide polymorphism (wgSNP) analyses. Epidemiological investigations identified a correlation between cake consumption and food poisoning. Thirteen strains isolated from patients and one strain isolated from the cake were confirmed as SE. Among the 14 strains, only six shared the same AST pattern (AMP-AMS-Sul-STR). Isolates from patients and cakes were indistinguishable in PFGE results. All four methods, namely PFGE, wgMLST, cgMLST, and wgSNP were appropriate for bacterial typing in SE-related outbreak investigation. However, wgSNP can assign 12 SE strains from the first outbreak to one cluster and assign two SE strains from the second outbreak to another cluster, while PFGE, wgMLST, cgMLST did not successfully distinguish the SE strains from different outbreaks. Thus, we conclude that SNP-based phylogenetic analysis might be a viable method for differentiating SE strains at the outbreak level.     

Propidium monoazide for viable Salmonella enterica detection by PCR and LAMP assays in comparison to RNA-based RT-PCR,RT-LAMP,and culture-based assays

Rapid and sensitive detection of live/infectious foodborne pathogens is urgently needed in order to prevent outbreaks and food recalls. This study aimed to (1) evaluate the incorporation of propidium monoazide (PMA) into PCR or LAMP assays to selectively detect viable Salmonella Enteritidis following sublethal heat or UV treatment, and autoclave sterilization; and (2) compare the detection of PMA-PCR and PMA-LAMP to DNA-based PCR and LAMP (without PMA), RNA-based RT-PCR and RT-LAMP, and culture-based methods. Nucleic acids (DNA or RNA) from 1-mL S. Enteritidis samples were used for PCR, RT-PCR, LAMP, and RT-LAMP assays. Serially diluted samples were plated on Xylose Lysine Tergitol-4 agar for cultural enumeration. Comparable detection of overnight cultured S. Enteritidis was obtained by PMA-PCR, PCR, and RT-PCR, though 1 to 2 log less sensitive than cultural assays. PMA-LAMP and RT-LAMP showed similar detection of overnight cultures, being 1 to 2 log less sensitive than the LAMP assay, and ∼4 log less than culture-based detection. Autoclaved S. Enteritidis did not test positive by RNA-based methods or PMA-PCR, but PMA-LAMP showed detection of 1 log CFU/mL. PMA-PCR and RT-PCR showed comparable detection of sublethal heat-treated cells to cultural assays, while PMA-LAMP showed 1 to 2 log less detection. Our results suggest that PMA-PCR and PMA-LAMP assays are not suitable for selective viable cell detection after UV treatment. While PMA-LAMP assay needs optimization, PMA-PCR shows promise for live/viable S. Enteritidis detection. PMA-PCR shows potential for routine testing in the food industry with results within 1-day, albeit depending on the inactivation method employed.     

FEEDING LOW CALCIUM AND ZINC MOLT DIETS SUSTAINS GASTROINTESTINAL FERMENTATION AND LIMITS SALMONELLA ENTERICA SEROVAR ENTERITIDIS COLONIZATION IN LAYING HENS

The objective of these experiments was to determine whether alternative molting diets would minimize Salmonella enterica serovar Entertitidis (S. Enteritidis) colonization in molting hens. Hens were randomly assigned to four treatment groups of 12 hens either full‐fed (nonmolt, NM), molted by feed withdrawal (molt, M), a low calcium (LC containing 800 mg calcium), or LC diet supplemented with 110 mg zinc/ kg of diet (LC‐ZN) in two trials. All hens were challenged orally with 10 ⁵SE on day 4 of experiment. Hen body weight loss was significantly (P < 0.05) increased and ovarian weight was significantly (P < 0.05) decreased in hens fed the LC or LC‐ZN diets compared to NM. Cecal lactic acid concentrations were significantly (P < 0.05) increased in hens fed alternative molting diets. Feed withdrawal molted hens exhibited significantly (P < 0.05) more S. Enteritidis positive and S. Enteritidis crop, cecal, and organ colonization than NM, LC and LC‐ZN hens. Alternative molt diets retain sufficient fermentative activity to limit S. Enteritidis colonization and therefore may have potential to avoid the risk of increasing S. Enteritidis colonization associated with feed withdrawal.     

Plasma phospholipids n‐3 polyunsaturated fatty acid is associated with metabolic syndrome

The relationship between n‐3 PUFA and metabolic syndrome (MS) is not clear. The aim of this study was to examine relationships between plasma phospholipids (PL) n‐3 PUFA and MS in Chinese subjects. Nine hundred and twenty‐nine subjects were recruited in Hangzhou, China. Two hundred and ten (183 males, 27 females) with MS and 719 (545 males, 174 females) healthy subjects were identified in this cross‐sectional study. The prevalence of MS in females (24.56%) was significantly higher than that in males (10.04%) in this population. Total PUFA (p<0.001), n‐3 PUFA (p<0.001), and n‐3:n‐6 (p<0.001) were significantly lower in MS subjects compared to healthy subjects. Plasma phospholipid (PL), n‐3 PUFA was significantly inversely associated with MS (p=0.013). In addition, subjects with high levels of PL total fatty acids (FA) had a more than threefold higher likelihood of MS (OR=3.44, 95% CI=1.60–7.39) than the subjects with low levels of PL total FA. Our results suggest that plasma PL n‐3 PUFA was significantly inversely associated with MS, while high total FA were positively associated with MS in Chinese.     

Detection of Extended‐Spectrum β‐Lactamase and Plasmid‐Mediated Quinolone Resistance Determinants in Escherichia coli Isolates from Retail Meat in China

The aim of this study was to investigate the presence of extended‐spectrum β‐lactamase (ESBL) and plasmid‐mediated quinolone resistance (PMQR) genes in Escherichia coli isolated from retail meat samples in Henan Province, China. E. coli isolates were detected in 179 of 645 (27.7%) retail meat samples. Resistance of these isolates to antimicrobials was commonly observed, with 78.2% of isolates resistant to streptomycin, 74.3% resistant to tetracycline and 54.2% resistant to trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole. Of the 179 isolates, 30 (16.7%) expressed ESBL, with bla_TEM‐1 (n = 17) and bla_CTX‐M‐14 (n = 9) most commonly mediating the ESBL phenotype. PMQR genes were present in 14 isolates (7.8%), with qnr and aac(6′)‐Ib‐cr detected alone or in combination in nine (5.0%) and seven isolates (3.9%), respectively. The qnr genes detected included qnrS1 (n = 5), qnrA1 (n = 3), and qnrB4 (n = 1). The qepA gene was absent among these isolates. CTX‐M‐14 was the most prevalent ESBL type among the PMQR‐positive isolates. The qnr and aac(6′)‐Ib‐cr genes were found to co‐reside and be co‐transferred with bla_CTX‐M‐14 or bla_TEM‐1 in five isolates. Our data suggest that retail meat may act as a reservoir for multi‐resistant E. coli and may facilitate the dissemination of resistance genes.     

Occurrence,Characterization, and Antimicrobial Susceptibility of Salmonella enterica in Slaughtered Pigs in Sardinia

The aim of this study was to determine Salmonella occurrence in slaughtered finishing pigs and piglets and in slaughterhouse environment in order to characterize the isolates with phenotypical (antimicrobial testing) and molecular (PFGE, MLVA) methods. Nine slaughterhouses located in Sardinia were visited. Six hundred and eight samples collected from 106 pigs and 108 environmental samples were collected and analyzed. Salmonella was isolated in 65 of 504 (12.9%) samples from finishing pigs, with an occurrence of 15.1% in colon content, 12.7% in lymph nodes and liver, and 11.1% in carcass surface samples. Salmonella was never detected in piglets. The combined results of serotyping and PFGE showed a possible self‐contamination in 71.5% of Salmonella positive carcasses of lymph nodes and/or colon content carriers, pointing out the role of healthy pigs for carcass contamination. A significantly higher (P < 0.05) occurrence was detected in finishing pigs of EC countries origin (23%) than in pigs of local farms (8%). Salmonella was also detected in 3.7% of environmental samples. The most prevalent serovar was S. Anatum, followed by S. Rissen, S. Derby, and monophasic S. Typhimurium. Resistance to at least 3 antimicrobial was observed in 97.1% of strains and 7 different patterns of multiple resistance were identified. The most common resistance was detected against sulphonamide compounds. A strict slaughterhouse application of hygiene standards is essential to control the risk of Salmonella contamination.     

Integrated surveillance of Salmonella along the food chain using existing data and resources in British Columbia,Canada

Integrated surveillance of pathogens along the food chain and the multidisciplinary investigation of food hazards are considered international best practices. Integrated surveillance of Salmonella was initiated in British Columbia (BC), Canada in 2006. The objectives of this paper were 1) to describe the BC integrated surveillance experience, 2) to present findings from the integrated surveillance of Salmonella, and 3) to identify the components that enabled the program. Data about BC animal, food and human Salmonella isolates from 2006 to 2010 (n = 5003) were centrally collated and analysed. Among chickens, chicken meat and humans, the most common serotypes identified were S. Enteritidis, S. Typhimurium and S. Heidelberg. An increase in S. Enteritidis in all three sectors in 2007–9 led to a multi-disciplinary and multi-sectoral investigation. An evaluation of the integrated surveillance program helped identify four critical program elements: dedicated people, cross-sectoral sharing and integration of data, multi-disciplinary analysis and interpretation of findings, and collaborative multi-sectoral response. Ongoing challenges include lack of resources and infrastructure to sustain the program.