Salt Reduction in Foods Using Naturally Brewed Soy Sauce

ABSTRACT:  In recent years, health concerns related to salt/sodium chloride consumption have caused an increased demand for salt-reduced foods. Consequently, sodium chloride (NaCl) reduction in foods has become an important challenge. The more so, since a decrease in NaCl content is often reported to be associated with a decrease in consumer acceptance. The objective of the present study was to investigate whether or not it would be possible to reduce the NaCl content in standard Western European foods by replacing it with naturally brewed soy sauce. Three types of foods were investigated: salad dressing ( n  = 56), soup ( n  = 52), and stir-fried pork ( n  = 57). In the 1st step, an exchange rate (ER) by which NaCl can be replaced with soy sauce without a significant change in the overall taste intensity was established per product type, by means of alternative forced choice tests. In the 2nd step, the same consumers evaluated 5 samples per product type with varying NaCl and/or soy sauce content on pleasantness and several sensory attributes. The results showed that it was possible to achieve a NaCl reduction in the tested foods of, respectively, 50%, 17%, and 29% without leading to significant losses in either overall taste intensity or product pleasantness. These results suggest that it is possible to replace NaCl in foods with naturally brewed soy sauce without lowering the overall taste intensity and to reduce the total NaCl content in these foods without decreasing their consumer acceptance.
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Health concerns related to salt consumption cause an increased demand for salt-reduced foods. Consequently, the development of foods with reduced salt content without decreasing the consumer acceptance is an important challenge for the food industry. A new possible salt reduction approach is described in the present article: The replacement of salt with naturally brewed soy sauce.     

Thickening Agents Effects on Sodium Binding and Other Taste Qualities of Soup Systems

Low sodium chicken broth with NaCl added to provide Na⁺ concentrations in typical reduced Na⁺ soups (144 and 288 mg Na⁺/240 mL serving) was thickened with commonly used gum, starch, or flour food additives. Xanthan gum suppressed saltiness as the result of ionic binding of Na⁺, as determined by sensory evaluation and ²³Na NMR spectroscopy. Saltiness was affected by added NaCl (p = 0.0001), thickener (p < 0.01), and added NaCl* thickener (p < 0.01), and positively correlated with chicken and overall flavors (p = 0.0001). Cornstarch provided body, no suppression of salt taste, and the greatest salt enhancement of chicken and overall flavors. In complex food systems, temperature and other factors affected Na⁺ binding as measured by NMR pointing to the need for a new model.     

Increasing Oil Concentration Affects Consumer Perception and Physical Properties of Mayonnaise‐type Spreads Containing KCl

Reducing sodium intakes remains a global challenge for the food industry. KCl is a potential salt substitute but imparts bitterness when used at high concentrations. Little is known about how oil concentrations (OC) affect consumers’ perception of saltiness and bitterness in emulsion products such as mayonnaise containing KCl. We evaluated consumers’ perception and physical properties of mayonnaise‐type spreads at various oil and tastant (NaCl or KCl) concentrations. Consumers (N = 306) evaluated saltiness, bitterness, overall taste liking (OTL) and purchase intent (PI). Viscosity, pH, water activity, and consistency/texture were also measured. Oil and tastant (NaCl or KCl) concentrations had significant effects on saltiness, viscosity, and pH. As OC increased, saltiness intensity slightly decreased for spreads. Increasing oil concentration increased viscosity. Generally, spreads containing KCl had higher bitterness and pH than spreads containing NaCl. All spreads containing KCl were penalized for being “too bitter.” PI was affected by OTL for all spreads but OC was also a significant factor in the purchase decision of spreads containing NaCl. This study demonstrated that increasing OC affected consumers’ taste perception (saltiness and bitterness) and spreads’ physical properties including pH and viscosity.     

Effect of fermentation by Aspergillus oryzae on the biochemical and sensory properties of anchovy (Engraulis japonicus) fish sauce

This study obtained an anchovy flavourful fish sauce by a bioprocess of aerobic fermentation with Aspergillus oryzae OAY1 in a period of time as short as 3 days. Amino nitrogen of the fish sauce increased to 7.35 mg mL^?1 by optimisation with response surface methodology (RSM). Results of chemical analysis showed that amino nitrogen, hydrolysis degree, reducing sugar and total amino acids all increased, along with the enhanced antioxidant activity. With regard to biogenic amines, most of the tested biogenic amines decreased after fermentation. Electronic nose test revealed that the odour of the fish sauce became more balanced and favourable after fermentation. In addition, volatile odorant analysis and sensory evaluation showed that no particularly unpleasant flavour ingredient was found in the anchovy fish sauce, and the taste was overall satisfactory. Meanwhile, consumer acceptance test showed that the anchovy fish sauce produced in this study using A. orzyae OAY1 had a high consumer acceptance similar to the commercial anchovy fish sauce. This aerobic fast‐fermentation process provided an efficient method for high‐quality fish sauce production.     

QUALITY OF FISH SAUCE PRODUCTS FROM RECYCLED BY‐PRODUCTS FROM FISH GEL AND KAMABOKO PROCESSING

ABSTRACT

In order to make effective reuse of kamaboko processing wastes and to minimize the amount of waste disposal, the production of two kinds of fish sauces was tried on a small industrial scale from the wastes with or without the addition of the meat of deepsea smelt (Glossanodon semifasciatus). They were fermented for 6 months at room temperature using salt and koji mold. As a control, a fish sauce was also produced only from the deepsea smelt meat. The recovery of fish sauce from the initial mashed mixture ranged between 75 and 79%, depending on the ingredients in the three fish sauce products. The total nitrogen content of the waste sauce and the mixed sauce was lower than that of the control. The levels of the original additives to kamaboko products, β‐carotene and sorbic acid, were very low in these fish sauces. The taste‐active components of the waste sauce and mixed sauces were lower than those of the control. Sensory evaluation revealed that the former two waste sauces were less bitter and higher in saltiness than the control. However, no difference was found in umami taste between these products. These findings suggest that the wastes from kamaboko processing factories could be reused as fish sauce for food condiments.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

Recent development in the food industry in Japan has enabled the surimi‐based products to be mass produced and standardized even in the fish gel, kamaboko trade. However, a serious problem has arisen in the development of kamaboko processing through the discharge of the wastes, i.e., nonstandard products or fragments, from kamaboko processing factories. It is clear that the waste from kamaboko processing factories is transformed effectively into fish sauce by using soy sauce koji mold. As a result, the amount of the discharged wastes from kamaboko factories are able to be minimized because the liquefaction ratio of the fish sauce mushes (moromi) from the wastes after fermentation was high and the products have a high umami taste and agreeable soy sauce‐like flavor.     

Relationship of pungency and leading flavour attributes in model food matrices – temporal aspects

Temporal aspects and interaction effect of pungency evoked by capsaicin/chili and leading flavour attributes in model food matrices were studied. Two experiments were performed: in experiment I pure capsaicin at three levels (0.5, 25, 125 ppm) was added to various carriers (water solution, potato starch gruel and tomato soup and sauce) and in experiment II chili powder was used as irritant (0.03%, 0.08%, 0.2%) in six different model food matrices (tomato, chicken and mushroom soups and sauces). Intensity changes of pungency and 2–3 leading flavour/taste attributes were traced using Time–Intensity procedure at pre-determined discrete time intervals. Most of T–I parameters of capsaicin pungency depended strongly on both, carrier complexity and capsaicin concentration. The three pairs of model soups and sauces suppressed pungency evoked by chili differently. Pungency intensity was consistently lower in sauces than in soups. Increasing chili level caused systematic but moderate or slight suppression of leading flavour attributes (more often in soups and less in sauces). Various taste quality (acidic, bitterness and saltiness) were differently affected by pungency. Quality changes and temporal migration of pungency sensation in the mouth contributed additionally to the complexity of interaction between pungency/leading flavour and taste attributes/carriers.     

Perceived taste of NaCl and acid mixtures in water and bread

The perceived intensity of saltiness, sourness, and overall taste of aqueous solutions containing NaCl, acetic, or lactic acid and rye bread samples was rated by 14 assessors. Pleasantness of the bread samples was also rated. Samples were prepared combining four levels of NaCl (0–1.6%), and four levels of acetic or lactic acid (0–0.9%) in water, and three levels of NaCl (0.5–1.7%) and three levels of acid (0.1–0.9%) in rye bread, yielding a total of 16 samples in all in both water series and a total of 9 samples in both bread series. Acetic-lactic acid mixtures (two ratios) were used as the acid component in the bread samples.
The perceived saltiness increased as the acid concentration was raised with low levels of NaCl in water and with all levels of NaCl in bread samples. Saltiness decreased with increasing acid concentration with high levels of NaCl in water. Sourness was depressed with increasing concentration of NaCl in water. The reduction of sourness by NaCl was more prominent in lactic than in acetic acid solutions. In contrast, sourness was not affected by NaCl in bread samples. The acid component was slightly dominant in terms of overall taste. This, there were noteworthy differences between the two media and the acids in the strength and in the type of inter-relationships with NaCl. Direct transformation of results from one medium to another may be misleading. It may be possible to achieve marked reduction of NaCl in solid food such as rye bread without a decrease in perceived saltiness or pleasantness by increasing the level of acidity through the addition of acids or through natural fermentation.     

Desalination of fish sauce by electrodialysis: effect on selected aroma compounds and amino acid compositions

Fish sauce is an ingredient that exhibits unique flavor and is widely used by people in Southeast Asia. Fish sauce, however, contains a significant amount of salt (sodium chloride). Recently, electrodialysis (ED) has been successfully applied to reduce salt in fish sauce; however, no information is available on the effect of ED on changes in compounds providing aroma and taste of ED-treated fish sauce. The selected aroma compounds, amino acids, and sensory quality of the ED-treated fish sauce with various salt concentrations were then analyzed. The amounts of trimethylamine, 2,6-dimethylpyrazine, phenols, and all carboxylic acids except for hexanoic acid significantly decreased, whereas benzaldehyde increased significantly when the salt removal level was higher. The amounts of all amino acids decreased with the increased salt removal level. Significant difference in flavor and saltiness intensity among ED-treated fish sauce with various salt concentrations, as assessed by a discriminative test, were observed. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Information obtained in this work can serve as a guideline for optimization of a process to produce low-sodium fish sauce by ED. It also forms a basis for further in-depth sensory analysis of low-sodium fish sauce.     

Effect of soy sauce type on the quality characteristics of emulsion sausages

The emulsion sausages were prepared with industrially brewed soy sauce at levels of 0, 1, 3, and 5%, and were additionally prepared with two further types of soy sauce (mixed and Korean traditional soy sauces) at a concentration of 1%. Soy sauce increased the satisfaction for flavor and saltiness of emulsion sausages. Addition of 1% soy sauce improved the overall acceptance without adverse effect on physicochemical and textural properties. From the results of electronic nose analysis, soy sauce results in an increased peak intensity of the emulsion sausages. In principal component analysis, clusters of emulsion sausages formulated with Korea traditional soy sauce and industrially brewed soy sauce were clearly distinct from the control (without soy sauce). Thus, our study suggested that addition of 1% soy sauce could be effective for improving the flavor of emulsion sausages, and the effects are highly dependent on the type of soy sauce used.     

Effects of rice koji inoculated with Aspergillus luchuensis on the biochemical and sensory properties of a sailfin sandfish (Arctoscopus japonicus) fish sauce

The effects of rice koji inoculated with Aspergillus luchuensis on the biochemical and sensory properties of fish sauce produced from sailfin sandfish (Arctoscopus japonicus) with different salt concentrations (10% and 20%) were investigated over 10 months. Fish sauces prepared from sailfin sandfish with rice koji and a low salt concentration had higher total nitrogen, amino nitrogen and total free amino acid than did those without rice koji or with a high salt concentration. Sensory evaluation of fish sauces prepared with rice koji and a low salt concentration found better taste, flavour and overall acceptance than those prepared without rice koji during fermentation (P < 0.05). The use of rice koji increased the total nitrogen, amino nitrogen and free amino acid and also enhanced the sensory qualities during fermentation. These results suggest that the use of rice koji can result in a low‐salt fish sauce with better flavour.     

Consumer Awareness and Interest Toward Sodium Reduction Trends in Korea

Reduction of dietary sodium intake by lowering amount of sodium in foods is a global industry target. Quantitative information on current consumer knowledge of sodium reduction trends in Korea is unknown. The objective of this study was to quantify the consumer knowledge and awareness of sodium and salt reduction in foods and to characterize consumer interest in health labeling on the food package. Additionally, comparison of consumer knowledge status between Korea and United States was followed. Consumers (n = 289) participated in an internet survey designed to gauge consumer knowledge and attitudes toward dietary sodium, the sodium content in representative food products (n = 27), and their interest toward specific health claims, including sodium labeling. Questions regarding demographics as well as consumption characteristics were asked. Sodium knowledge index and saltiness belief index were calculated based on the number of correct responses regarding the salt level and sodium content in given food products. Kano analysis was conducted to determine the role of nutrition labels in consumer satisfaction with products. Current consumer knowledge on the sodium content in food products was high, and consumers were adept at matching the sodium content with the salty taste intensity of food products. Consumers’ knowledge of the relationship between diets high in sodium and an increased risk of developing previously reported sodium‐related diseases, such as hypertension, coronary heart disease, kidney disease, and stomach cancer, were also high. Information on the nutrition panel that influences the consumer satisfaction (trans‐fat, sodium, ingredient list, and country of origin) as well as adjective‐nutrition claim pairs that appeal positively to purchase intent of the product were identified.     

Aroma–taste interactions between a model cheese aroma and five basic tastes in solution

The flavour perception of cheese results from complex sensory interactions between tastes and aromas. Using a model cheese solution, this study investigated perceived interactions between each of five basic tastes and a cheese aroma mixture containing ten volatile compounds commonly found in cheese. The five tastes – sucrose (sweetness), sodium chloride (NaCl) (saltiness), monosodium glutamate (MSG) (umami), lactic acid (sourness), and caffeine (bitterness) – were individually mixed with cheese aroma in water using a 5 taste level (0.2 log series) by 3 aroma level (0.5 log series) design. Aroma controls with no added taste were also included. This resulted in 18 samples for each single taste–aroma combination. An additional 18 samples were produced using a mixture of all 5 tastes with the 3 aroma levels. A panel of trained assessors (n = 10) evaluated cheese flavour intensity and taste intensity using 100 point line scales. Evaluation was carried out in duplicate, with samples grouped by taste type; 1 evaluation session per taste per replicate. Within type, order of presentation was balanced, and taste type order was randomised between replicates. Cheese flavour intensity was enhanced by sucrose and NaCl, while being suppressed by lactic acid. NaCl enhanced cheese flavour intensity the most at high aroma level, while lactic acid suppressed the most at low aroma level. When MSG level was increased, cheese flavour intensity was enhanced at both low and medium aroma levels, but was suppressed at the high aroma level. The greatest enhancement of cheese flavour intensity was found with the mixture of 5 tastes. Aroma significantly enhanced umami and bitterness, but did not enhance sweetness, saltiness, or sourness. This study showed that the perceived interaction between taste and cheese aroma depended on taste type and on the concentration levels of both taste type and aroma. The mixture of tastes was more effective at enhancing cheese flavour intensity than single tastes. This study provides knowledge that will underpin further study of taste–aroma interactions in a model cheese that aims to optimise cheese flavour intensity and character.     

Fat and salt contents affect the in-mouth temporal sodium release and saltiness perception of chicken sausages

In cooked meats, sodium chloride is involved in taste, texture and flavour release. So a reduction in the salt content may have an impact on overall perception and acceptability. The aim of this study was to evaluate the influence of composition on sodium release and saltiness intensity in chicken sausages. The rheological properties of the sausages differed according to composition. Temporal sodium release and temporal saltiness intensity were evaluated by four selected subjects when eating sausages. At each time point, the effect of the salt level in sausages on sodium release was positive and highly significant. The effect of lipids on sodium release was negative. Concerning perception, the amount of salt used had a positive effect on saltiness intensity, and lipids seemed to exert a masking effect. Generally, clear relationships between salt levels, sodium release and saltiness intensity were found but the masking effect of lipids on saltiness intensity probably also involved texture or fat perception mechanisms.     

Analysis of binary taste-taste interactions of MSG,lactic acid,and NaCl by temporal dominance of sensations

Temporal dominance of sensations (TDS) is a relatively novel sensory evaluation technique that measures the temporal evolution of sensory perception. The sensory properties of food or drink products have been described by TDS; however, basic sensory data on TDS are still lacking. We analyzed TDS data for solutions of three basic tastes (umami, salty, and sour) and their binary combinations. The duration of TDS for the main taste of each type of solution (monosodium glutamate [MSG] for umami, sodium chloride [NaCl] for saltiness, and lactic acid for sourness) increased in a concentration-dependent manner. In addition, the duration of the umami taste of MSG was longer than that of MSG/inosine 5′-monophosphate solution with an umami taste of equivalent intensity. The duration of NaCl saltiness was increased by coexistence with MSG and decreased by coexistence with lactic acid. On the other hand, the duration of the umami taste of MSG was suppressed by coexistence with NaCl but not lactic acid, while the duration of the sour taste of lactic acid was suppressed by MSG but not NaCl. These findings provide novel insight into the temporal sequence of basic taste perception during food consumption.     

Consumer acceptance of salt-reduced “soy sauce” foods over rapidly repeated exposure

The stability of the liking for salt reduced products was tested in a rapidly repeated exposure study using soup and bread (with ham). Salt was partially replaced by naturally brewed soy sauce. First, 44 consumers performed 5 two-alternative forced choice tests to establish the exchange rate (ER) at which table salt could be replaced with soy sauce without significantly changing overall taste intensity. Secondly, the same consumers rated their liking for 5 samples with varying table salt and/or soy sauce content to determine the optimal exchange rate (OER), which is the highest concentration of NaCl in products that can be replaced with soy sauce without significant losses in both overall taste intensity and product liking. Finally, a new group of 64 consumers performed rapidly repeated exposure tests with two variants per product type: the non-salt-reduced standard variant (A) and a salt/soy sauce variant (B) based on the OER (NaCl reduction soup: 24.4%; bread & ham: 38.9%). Repeated exposure to the soy sauce variant had a significant to very significant positive effect on the liking for the products in all groups of subjects with the exception of a small group that did not like the soy sauce variant of bread. The influence of the rapidly repeated exposure was interpreted in terms of the optimal arousal theory. The results also demonstrated the importance of determining the ER, the OER and the development of preference over repeated exposure in the developed three-stage procedure.     

Sensory lexicon and relationships among brown colour,saltiness perception and sensory liking evaluated by regular users and culinary chefs: a case of soy sauces

This study was performed to develop lexicon to describe soy sauces using regular users (consumers) vs. culinary chefs, to perform product grouping using a free-sorting task and to determine relationship among physicochemical properties (colour, %NaCl) and consumer perception of soy sauces. Both panels identified eighteen terms to describe soy sauces, of which eleven terms (light, medium and dark brown colour, weak, medium and strong saltiness, sweetness, saltiness–sweetness, tasty/umami, and soy sauce and fermented aroma) were similar. For culinary chefs, three distinctive soy sauce groups based on brown colour (light, medium and dark brown) were identified, while two groups (light and medium dark brown) for regular users. From free-sorting maps, both panels associated brown colour intensity with saltiness expectation/perception. From PCA biplots, both panels shared some similarities for sensory liking (colour, saltiness, flavour, overall liking) for soy sauces. This study suggested that brown colour intensities affected saltiness expectation/perception and were used for product grouping for soy sauces.     

Limosilactobacillus fermentum FSCBAD033控制带鱼加工下脚料发酵鱼露中生物胺含量研究

目的 控制带鱼加工下脚料低盐发酵鱼露中的生物胺含量。方法 以耐盐性高效生物胺降解乳酸菌Limosilactobacillus fermentum FSCBAD033为功能发酵剂控制带鱼加工下脚料发酵鱼露中的生物胺含量,并研究其对鱼露发酵过程中的pH值、NaCl含量、总可溶性氮(Total Soluble Nitrogen,TSN)含量、氨基酸态氮(Amino Acid Nitrogen,AAN)含量、挥发性盐基氮(Total Volatile Basic Nitrogen,TVB-N)含量以及发酵结束时感官风味的影响。结果 与Control组相比,接种L. fermentum FSCBAD033发酵剂对鱼露发酵过程中的NaCl含量影响不大(p>0.05),但可促进pH值下降以及TSN和AAN含量上升,并显著抑制TVB-N的产生(p<0.05)；显著降低发酵结束时鱼露中52.38%尸胺、40.21%组胺、45.44%酪胺、23.74%腐胺、52.67%苯乙胺和43.26%总生物胺(p<0.05),对含量较低的色胺、精胺和亚精胺影响不大；此外,接种L. fermentum FSCBAD033发酵剂可增强发酵结束时鱼露的鲜味和肉味,减弱氨味、腥味和臭味,整体提升鱼露感官风味。结论 L. fermentum FSCBAD033可作为带鱼加工下脚料低盐发酵的功能发酵剂,用于生产低盐、营养丰富、感官风味好且生物胺含量低的高品质鱼露产品。     

Salty taste in dairy foods: can we reduce the salt?

Sodium can be found in many sources of the US diet. Dietary guidelines currently suggest a maximum intake of 2,300 mg of sodium (6 g of sodium chloride) per day, whereas the average consumer intake is 3,600 mg of sodium (9 g of sodium chloride) per day. The main health concern with high consumption of sodium is hypertension. The objectives of this study were to identify the salty taste intensity of sodium chloride in water and various dairy food matrices, and to identify the just-noticeable difference in concentration at which consumers noticed a decrease in salty taste in these food products. Solutions and food products (water, cheese sauce, cottage cheese, and milk-based soup) were prepared with sodium chloride ranging in concentration from 0.008 to 0.06 M. Seventeen panelists evaluated the salty intensity of each product in triplicate using a magnitude estimation scale. In subsequent tests, panelists (n = 50) evaluated salty intensity of these food products in separate sessions using an ascending force choice method to determine the just-noticeable difference. Consumer acceptance tests (n = 75 consumers) were conducted with cottage cheeses with and without sodium reductions and under conditions with and without health benefits of sodium reduction. The magnitude estimation scale data were log-transformed, and all data were analyzed by ANOVA with Fisher's least significant difference for means separation. The linear proportion of the power function in the salty taste intensity curve for sodium chloride solutions and the 3 foods was between 0.03 and 0.20 M. Consumers were able to notice and correctly identify reductions in salt concentration of less than 20% in all products. When consumers were informed of sodium reduction and its health benefits before tasting cottage cheese with lower sodium (4-12%), overall liking scores for the lower sodium cottage cheeses were not different from higher sodium cottage cheeses. These results suggest that reducing sodium in cheese sauce, cottage cheese, and milk-based soups may be challenging and that exploration of sodium chloride alternatives in these foods is warranted. Appropriate product positioning or advertising may be beneficial to consumer acceptance of lower sodium types of products.