Private forest owners' willingness to supply woody biomass in selected South-Eastern European countries

Production of woody biomass-based energy, mainly by using fuel wood, is a common way of forest utilization in selected South-Eastern European countries – Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serbia and Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. Due to specific forest ownership patterns in the region, state owned forests are the most important source of all forest assortments, including woody biomass. Having in mind the increasing energy needs on the global scale, particularly those for energy from renewable sources, private forests may play an important role in terms of wood mobilization and energy production from woody biomass. The purpose of this research was to identify the willingness of private forest owners in selected countries to supply woody biomass for energy as well as to identify the factors that influence it. The survey data collected in 2012 from 1.400 private forests owners (random samples of 350 private forests owners in each of the four countries), show a relatively high degree of willingness (38–55% of the respondents) to manage their forests in order to produce woody biomass. Furthermore, the results, demonstrated that the willingness of private forest owners to supply woody biomass was namely influenced by age in analysed countries. The models found that relatively younger owners were more likely to supply woody biomass. An adequate institutional and financial support to private forest owners and the designing of an appropriate mix of forest policy instruments are necessary for a better wood mobilisation and the triggering of woody biomass supply from private forests in selected South-Eastern European countries.     

Private landowner intent to supply woody feedstock for bioenergy production

In this research, we evaluated the intent of engaged private forest landowners to supply woody biomass for bioenergy production. The study was conducted in a U.S. state (Kentucky) where private individuals own a majority (78%) of the state's forest resources. Intent of family forest owners was measured using a mail-based survey. We used the Theory of Planned Behavior to model factors that affect landowner intention, and we tested the effect of educational materials on participates' reported intent. Two-thirds of respondents indicated that they intend to include energy wood in future harvests, but the educational material treatment did not affect intentions. Respondents' attitudes, perceived subjective norms, and perceived control each had a significant effect on intent to harvest. No demographic or land ownership characteristics had an effect on behavioral intent. The only prior harvest activity that significantly increased intent was whether the subject had harvested pulpwood from their forest in the past. Respondents identified barriers that may prevent them from harvesting energy wood, providing forestry professionals with a list of challenges to overcome if supply is to be maximized. Lack of bioenergy markets and woodland access issues were the most frequently reported barriers.     

Cellulosic ethanol production: Landscape scale net carbon strongly affected by forest decision making

In producing cellulosic ethanol as a renewable biofuel from forest biomass, a tradeoff exists between the displacement of fossil fuel carbon (C) emissions by biofuels and the high rates of C storage in aggrading forest stands. To assess this tradeoff, the landscape area affected by feedstock harvest must be considered, which depends on numerous factors including forest productivity, the amount of forest in a fragmented landscape, and the willingness of forest landowners to sell timber as a bioenergy feedstock. We studied landscape scale net C balance by combining these considerations in a new, basic simulation model, CEBRAM, and applying it to a hypothetical landscape of short-rotation aspen forests in northern Michigan, USA. The model was parameterized for forest species, growth and ecosystem C storage, as well as landscape spatial patterns of forest cover in this region. To understand and parameterize forest owner decision making we surveyed 505 nonindustrial private forest (NIPF) owners in Michigan. Survey results indicated that 47% of these NIPF owners would willingly harvest forest biomass for bioenergy. Model results showed that at this rate the net C balance was 0.024 kg/m² for a cellulosic ethanol system without considering land use over a 40 year time horizon. When C storage in aggrading, nonparticipating NIPF land was included, net C balance was 1.09 kg/m² over 40 years. In this region, greater overall C gains can be realized through aspen forest aggradation than through the displacement of gasoline by cellulosic ethanol produced from forest biomass.     

Factors affecting nonindustrial private forest landowners' willingness to supply woody biomass for bioenergy

Bioenergy is a renewable form of potential alternative to traditional fossil fuels that has come to the forefront as a result of recent concerns over high price of fuels, national security, and climate change. Nonindustrial private forest (NIPF) landowners form the dominant forest ownership group in the southern United States. These forests often tend to have large quantities of small diameter trees. Use of logging residues and non-marketable small diameter trees for bioenergy production can create economic opportunities for NIPF landowners. The results demonstrated that landowners’ willingness to harvest woody biomass was influenced by their ownership objectives, size of the forest, structure and composition of tree species, and demographic characteristics. The model found that relatively younger landowners who owned large acres of forestland with pine plantations or mix forests had the potential to become a preferable choice for contractors, extension foresters and bioenergy industries as they were more likely to supply woody biomass for bioenergy. Findings of this study will be useful to bioenergy industries, extension foresters, nonindustrial private forest landowners and policy makers.     

Wood-energy market impact on competition, procurement practices, and profitability of landowners and forest products industry in the U.S. south

Recent emphasis on producing energy from woody biomass has raised questions about the impact of a wood-energy market on the U.S. South’s wood supply chain. We surveyed wood-energy facilities, fibermills, sawmills, private landowners, and government landholders to investigate the expected impact of a vibrant wood-energy market on the southern wood supply chain. Specifically, our study was designed to document potential competition for resources, wood supply chain profitability, and landowner willingness to sell timber to energy facilities. Results indicate that wood-energy facilities and traditional mills were not competing for raw material on a large scale at the time of the study, but competition is expected over the next decade. Almost 90% of fibermills reported that traditional forest industry mills should enter the wood-energy market, but most were skeptical that the new market would improve profitability. Ninety percent of responding landowners reported a willingness to sell to energy facilities if the right price is offered and all of those who had already sold timber to an energy facility were satisfied with the experience. Only 3.5% of respondents were unwilling to sell timber to an energy company, and only one of these respondents listed timber production as a primary objective, which indicates those who would not harvest timber for energy, may be unlikely to harvest timber for other purposes also. This study suggests that the southern wood supply chain is in position to profit from a wood-energy market; however, concerns remain about the coexistence of the forest products and wood-energy industries.     

Interest in energy wood and energy crop production among Finnish non-industrial private forest owners

EU targets and regulations regarding energy production and the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions have been tightening in the 2000s. In Finland the targets are planned to be achieved mainly by increasing the use of biomass. Wood already accounts for a marked proportion of Finnish energy production, but additional reserves are still available. Energy crop production also has considerable potential. Practically all Finnish farmers are also forest owners. Therefore, private forest owners are in a decisive position regarding the supply of energy wood and crops in Finland. In this paper the future supply of biomass is examined according to their past behaviour, intentions and attitudes. Finnish forest owners have a positive attitude towards the use of wood and crops in energy production. Price is becoming more critical as a motive for the supply of energy wood. Recreation and nature conservation play a smaller role than factors related to wood production and forest management as for motives for harvesting energy wood. However, almost a half of forest owners in this study were uncertain of their willingness to supply biomass. This is partly due to limited knowledge of the issues involved in energy wood and agricultural energy crop production and the underdeveloped markets for energy biomass. In order to achieve the targets, supply should be activated by further developing market practices, information, guidance and possibly other incentives for landowners. In general, there is interest among landowners in increasing the supply of energy biomass. However, the growth of supply presumes that production is an economically attractive and competitive alternative, that the markets are better organized than at present, and that more comprehensive information is available about bioenergy and biomass markets and production techniques.     

An outlook for sustainable forest bioenergy production in the Lake States

The Lake States region of Minnesota, Wisconsin and Michigan offers significant potential for bioenergy production. We examine the sustainability of regional forest biomass use in the context of existing thermal heating, electricity, and biofuels production, projected resource needs over the next decade including existing forest product market demand, and impacts on price and feasibility. Assuming $36 per dry tonne at roadside, 4.1 million dry tonnes of forest biomass could be available region-wide. However, less is likely available due to localized environmental and forest cover type constraints, and landowner willingness to harvest timber. Total projected demand of 5.7 million dry tonnes, based on current and announced industry capacity, exceeds estimates of biomass availability, which suggests that anticipated growth in the forest-based bioeconomy may be constrained. Attaining projected demand will likely require a combination of higher cost feedstocks, integration of energy and non-energy uses, and careful management to meet environmental constraints. State distinctions in biomass harvest guidelines and the propensity for third-party forest certification will be critical in providing environmental safeguards. The cumulative effect of policy initiatives on biomass competition are discussed in the context of an emerging Lake States bioeconomy.     

Exploring Norwegian forest owner's intentions to provide harvest residues for bioenergy

The large biomass resource in the Norwegian woods may contribute considerably to the development of a more sustainable energy system. A more complete tree harvest is being promoted, where harvest residues are utilised to provide bioenergy. Little research has addressed the intentions of forest owners towards harvesting forest residues.A survey of non-industrial private forest owners in two municipalities located in the south east of Norway was conducted in order to understand their attitudes and intentions to provide harvest residues for bioenergy production. The results showed that forest owners would be willing to supply harvest residues: about 40% of the respondents were highly in favour and almost 70% expressed a positive opinion.A factor analysis of the attitudinal statements resulted in four main factors of which three were found to significantly affect the intention in a regression analysis. The first factor was related to the beneficial effects of harvest residues, the second covered negative (mainly environmental) effects, and the third covered the positive effects upon forest management.The social influences seemed to have two distinct dimensions: personal relationships (e.g., other forest owners, neighbours and family) and professional interactions (e.g., governmental authorities). While the former had a significant effect on intentions, the latter did not. Finally, socioeconomic variables (gender, age, and municipality) did not influence the intention to deliver harvest residues.     

Woodland owners' attitudes towards energy from forest biomass in a carbon-intensive jurisdiction: Case study of Nova Scotia,Canada

The use of forest biomass in thermal generation processes has been recognized by the Government of Nova Scotia (NS) as one option that could help meet its renewable electricity goals (25% by 2015 and 40% by 2020). Over half of the woodland in NS is owned by small-private woodland owners (51%), indicating that they could significantly influence the future of NS forests and its potential use for energy purposes. This paper presents the results of a survey of small-woodland owners on their attitudes towards using energy from forest biomass. 489 small-woodland owners responded to mail-out surveys and 14 rural community members participated in three focus groups. Three major findings emerged. First, it was found that the acceptability of using forest products varied depending on multiple factors – the source of biomass, harvesting methods, and [predicted] end-use. Second, forest sustainability and keeping resources local were the two most important concerns amongst respondents. Finally, respondents felt that better collaboration with other stakeholders and education around the issues would be the best strategies for overcoming these concerns. The paper also highlights the barriers and drivers as perceived by the woodland owners as they relate to the possibility of using more biomass for energy in the future.     

Residential use of firewood in Northern Sweden and its influence on forest biomass resources

Firewood is society’s oldest source of household energy and is still extensively used around the world. However, little is known about firewood usage in technologically advanced countries with high energy consumption. Some key issues include quantities of firewood currently used and future trends, as well as the influence of this usage on available biomass resources. This study addresses those issues through a postal questionnaire to 1500 of the firewood using households in a region in Northern Sweden. One-third of households produced 11-20 solid m³ of firewood per year. Three-fourths expected their production to be unchanged or increase during the coming five years. A large proportion of young producers indicated long-term continuation of firewood usage. Half (53%) of the firewood producing households owned forest and thereby had free access to wood. Produced firewood volume corresponded to 4-8% of the region’s roundwood volume harvested for industrial purposes. The use of firewood is suggested to influence decisions of private forest owners about management and harvest of forest biomass, and, thus, affect supply for bioenergy and other uses. With further incorporation of firewood usage into forest biomass management regimes, larger biomass quantities are likely to be available for industrial uses.     

Forest owner motivations and attitudes towards supplying biomass for energy in Europe

The European Commission expects the use of biomass for energy in the EU to increase significantly between 2010 and 2020 to meet a legally binding target to cover at least 20% of EU's total energy use from renewable sources in 2020. According to estimates made by the member states of the EU, the direct supply of biomass from forests is expected to increase by 45% on a volume basis between 2006 and 2020 in response to increasing demand (Beurskens LWM, Hekkenberg M, Vethman P. Renewable energy projections as published in the national renewable energy action plans of the European Member states. ECN and EEA; 2011. http://https://www.ecn.nl/docs/library/report/2010/e10069.pdf [accessed 25.04.2014]; Dees M, Yousef A, Ermert J. Analysis of the quantitative tables of the national renewable energy action plans prepared by the 27 European Union Member States in 2010. BEE working paper D7.2. Biomass Energy Europe project. FELIS – Department of Remote Sensing and landscape information Systems, University of Freiburg, Germany; 2011). Our aims were to test the hypotheses that European private forest owners' attitudes towards supplying woody biomass for energy (1) can be explained by their responses to changes in prices and markets and (2) are positive so that the forest biomass share of the EU 2020 renewable energy target can be met. Based on survey data collected in 2010 from 800 private forest owners in Sweden, Germany and Portugal our results show that the respondents' attitudes towards supplying woody biomass for energy cannot be explained as direct responses to changes in prices and markets. Our results, furthermore, imply that European private forest owners cannot be expected to supply the requested amounts of woody biomass for energy to meet the forest biomass share of the EU 2020 renewable energy target, at least if stemwood is to play the important role as studies by Verkerk PJ, Anttila P, Eggers J, Lindner M, Asikainen A. The realisable potential supply of woody biomass from forests in the European Union. For Ecol Manag 2011;261: 2007–2015, UNECE and FAO. The European forest sector outlook study II 2010–2030. United Nations, New York and Geneva; 2011 [abbreviated to EFSOS II] and Elbersen B, Staritsky I, Hengeveld G, Schelhaas MJ, Naeff H, Böttcher H. Atlas of EU biomass potentials; 2012. Available from: http://www.biomassfutures.eu [accessed 14.10.2013] suggest.     

Higher US crop prices trigger little area expansion so marginal land for biofuel crops is limited

By expanding energy biomass production on marginal lands that are not currently used for crops, food prices increase and indirect climate change effects can be mitigated. Studies of the availability of marginal lands for dedicated bioenergy crops have focused on biophysical land traits, ignoring the human role in decisions to convert marginal land to bioenergy crops. Recent history offers insights about farmer willingness to put non-crop land into crop production. The 2006–09 leap in field crop prices and the attendant 64% gain in typical profitability led to only a 2% increase in crop planted area, mostly in the prairie states. At this rate, a doubling of expected profitability from biomass crops would expand cropland supply by only 3.2%. Yet targets for cellulosic ethanol production in the US Energy Independence and Security Act imply boosting US planted area by 10% or more with perennial biomass crops. Given landowner reluctance to expand crop area with familiar crops in the short run, large scale expansion of the area in dedicated bioenergy crops will likely be difficult and costly to achieve.     

Energy trade-offs between intensive biomass utilization, site productivity loss, and ameliorative treatments in loblolly pine plantations

Loblolly pine plantations are the most important source of forest products in the US and the slash remaining after conventional harvest represents a significant potential source of bioenergy. However, slash removal in intensive harvests might, under some circumstances, reduce site productivity by reducing soil organic matter and associated nutrients. Two complimentary studies in the Gulf Coastal Plain of the southeastern US were designed to test whether harvest intensity (level of biomass removal) could have a negative long-term impact on site productivity. Harvesting tree crowns in addition to the merchantable bole had a negative impact (18%) on pine biomass accumulation by age 7–10 years on 15 of 19 research blocks. Sites at risk of harvest-induced reductions in productivity were relatively unproductive prior to harvest and had low soil phosphorus (P) concentrations. Intensive harvesting, fertilization, and chemical control of non-crop vegetation were all energy efficient; the additional biomass energy gained through these practices was two-orders of magnitude greater than the energy needed to conduct the activities. Harvest of slash for bioenergy in the Gulf Coastal Plain of the southeastern US has the potential to reduce productivity on infertile soils, but fertilization has the potential to restore and even improve productivity on those sites in an energy-efficient way.     

Time-dependent climate benefits of using forest residues to substitute fossil fuels

In this study we analyze and compare the climate impacts from the recovery, transport and combustion of forest residues (harvest slash and stumps), versus the climate impacts that would have occurred if the residues were left in the forest and fossil fuels used instead. We use cumulative radiative forcing (CRF) as an indicator of climate impacts, and we explicitly consider the temporal dynamics of atmospheric carbon dioxide and biomass decomposition. Over a 240-year period, we find that CRF is significantly reduced when forest residues are used instead of fossil fuels. The type of fossil fuel replaced is important, with coal replacement giving the greatest CRF reduction. Replacing oil and fossil gas also gives long-term CRF reduction, although CRF is positive during the first 10-25 years when these fuels are replaced. Biomass productivity is also important, with more productive forests giving greater CRF reduction per hectare. The decay rate for biomass left in the forest is found to be less significant. Fossil energy inputs for biomass recovery and transport have very little impact on CRF.     

Farmers' willingness to contract switchgrass as a cellulosic bioenergy crop in Kansas

Farmers' adoption of cellulosic biofuel feedstock enterprises plays an important role in the future of agriculture and the renewable fuels \industry. However, no set markets currently exist for bioenergy feedstocks outside of very localized geographic locations and farmers may be reluctant to produce the feedstocks without contracts that help mitigate uncertainty and risk. This study examines farmers' willingness to grow switchgrass under contract using a stated choice approach. Data were collected using an enumerated survey of Kansas farmers and analyzed using latent class logistic regression models. Farmers whose primary enterprise is livestock are less inclined to grow switchgrass. Shorter contracts, greater harvest flexibility, crop insurance, and cost-share assistance increase the likelihood that farmers will grow switchgrass for bioenergy production.     

Investment preferences for wood-based energy initiatives in the US

The forest sector is poised to become a major supplier of wood-based energy in the US. Prospects for growth in energy demand and higher prices can create opportunities for private investments in renewable energy industries. A conjoint analysis examined individuals’ willingness to invest in wood-based energies following a random utility model. The study design included three investment attributes: annual returns on investment, type of investment, and location of investment. Three ordinal models that also included demographic and attitudinal characteristics indicate that wood-based energy is less preferred among potential investors compared to the stock market and solar/wind renewable energy investments. Expected returns and location of energy investments within the US are also major drivers of investment preferences. Favorable attitudes towards forestry and wood-based energy could enhance prospects for a greater number of potential investors.     

Wood fuel supply as a function of forest owner preferences and management styles

The commercial demand for wood fuel is rapidly increasing in Sweden, and the domestic supply comes primarily from private non-industrial forest owners. A model was developed to analyse decision-making among these private forest owners. The model covers five factors: economics, transaction costs, concerns about soil fertility, forestry, and previous experience. It was applied in a survey among forest owners in four communities in central Sweden in 1999. Wood fuels had been sold from 60% of the estates. Analysis suggests that the price paid had little influence on the decision to sell. Transaction costs had been alleviated by the traditional timber buyer organizing the fuel trade, and by minimizing measurement in the forest. The primary reason for selling wood fuel was that the harvesting operation cleared the ground of debris. There is a general concern for loss in soil fertility due to wood fuel harvesting which is why some owners do not sell forest fuels. Two types of fuel-selling forest owners were identified: (1) an active manager seeking different gains from wood fuel harvest, and (2) an owner who primarily relies on the advice of the timber buyer. The findings indicate that large-scale traders of wood fuels have to be active in increasing supply, making direct contact with forest owners, and connecting trade with information on ecological and silvicultural effects. Offering ash recycling may enhance supply more than marginal price increases.     

Beyond economics—understanding the decision-making of German small private landlords in terms of energy efficiency investment

The German government aims to achieve virtually climate-neutral building stock by 2050 to tackle climate change. To realise this goal, comprehensive policy packages based on neoclassical economic theory are in place to foster energy efficiency investment. However, in the building sector, there is increasingly a gap between this aspiration and the reality. It is claimed that one of the main reasons for this is that the existing policy framework fails to address the specific characteristics and needs of different groups of building owners. This is a particular challenge in Germany, where 80% of all dwellings are owned privately and 37% are rented out by small private landlords (SPL). Despite the significant numbers of SPL, they often follow black box decision-making processes when considering energy renovations. In this study, the author uses an explanatory model to understand the decision-making processes of SPL, combining theoretical aspects from different research disciplines. This model was applied to a low-demand housing market in a neighbourhood in the Ruhr area. Eighteen semi-structured interviews (each lasting between 37 and 115 min) were conducted, demonstrating that in addition to economic factors, the values, beliefs, norms and routines of SPL—as well as their personal capabilities and contextual factors—play an important role in their decision-making. Based on the findings, recommendations are made for enhancing the effectiveness of existing energy efficiency policies and other supporting instruments (e.g. tenancy law and social legislation), tailored to the specific needs of SPL.     

Harvesting productivity and costs when utilizing energywood from pine plantations of the southern Coastal Plain USA

For woody biomass to make a significant contribution to the United States' energy portfolio, harvesting contractors must economically harvest and transport energywood to conversion/processing facilities. We conducted a designed operational study in the Coastal Plain of North Carolina, USA with three replications of three treatments to measure harvesting productivity and costs when utilizing woody biomass. The treatments were: a conventional roundwood only harvest (control), an integrated harvest in which merchantable roundwood was delivered to mills and residuals were chipped for energy, and a chip harvest in which all stems were chipped for energy use. The harvesting contractor in this study typically delivers 2200–2700 t of green roundwood per week and is capable of wet-site harvesting. Results indicate that onboard truck green roundwood costs increased from 9.35 $ t⁻¹ in the conventional treatment to 10.98 $ t⁻¹ in the integrated treatment as a result of reduced felling and skidding productivity. Green energy chips were produced for 19.19 $ t⁻¹ onboard truck in the integrated treatment and 17.93 $ t⁻¹ in the chip treatment. Low skidding productivity contributed to high chip costs in the integrated treatment. Residual green biomass was reduced from 18 t ha⁻¹ in the conventional treatment to 4 and 3 t ha⁻¹ in the integrated and chip treatments, respectively. This study suggests that until energywood prices appreciate substantially, loggers are unlikely to sacrifice roundwood production to increase energywood production. This research provides unique information from a designed experiment documenting how producing energywood affects each function of a harvesting system.     

生物质能流化床转化利用技术实践

大力开发生物质能的流化床转化利用技术 ,将我国丰富低品位的生物质能转化为高品质的电、热、气和油等 ,不仅可以节省能源和调整能源结构 ,还能有效应对由于CO2 的大量排放而引起的全球变暖与温室效应等问题。介绍了我国生物质能的资源状况及利用情况 ,分析了几种生物质能流化床转化利用技术 ,特别是简要地介绍了浙江大学在生物质能流化床转化利用方面所进行的部分工作和取得的成绩