Influence of evoked contexts on rating-based conjoint analysis: Case study with lamb meat

The aim of the present work was to evaluate the influence of two evoked consumption contexts on consumers’ intention to purchase lamb meat cuts using rating-based conjoint analysis. Participants were randomly assigned to one of the evoked consumption contexts: a celebratory lunch with family over the weekend (n = 157), and a dinner at home after a day’s work (n = 171). Rating-based conjoint analysis was used to evaluate the influence of four independent variables on consumers’ intention to purchase lamb meat in each of the two evoked consumption contexts: type of cut, presentation, seasoning and price. Intention to purchase scores were significantly affected by the evoked context. Consumers were more willing to purchase lamb meat when the celebratory weekend lunch context was considered, compared to the weekday dinner. In the two contexts, price was the most important variable affecting willingness to purchase lamb meat, followed by type of cut. However, at the aggregate level the utility values were similar for the two contexts: consumers expressed higher intention to purchase for leg cuts without seasoning at the highest price. In the two contexts different consumer segments were identified, which gave different relative importance to the variables included in the conjoint task. However, conclusions regarding consumers’ segmentation were affected by evoked consumption context. The findings suggest that evoked consumption contexts influence results from conjoint analysis, which suggests that they may be an interesting methodological alternative to increase the validity of conjoint tasks.     

Baby boomers' acceptability of a tomato lentil pasta sauce

The baby boomer generation (individuals born between 1946 and 1965) are placing a demand on the food industry for products that not only promote longevity and well-being, but also contain functional ingredients for enhanced-nutritional and health benefits. Pasta sauce is a widely consumed tomato product. The objective of this study was to identify consumer acceptability of a pasta sauce with increased fibre content previously developed by our research group. One hundred and twenty three baby boomers (Female: 75%), mean age 56 ± 5.4 years, were recruited from four Farmers' Markets across southern Manitoba (Urban: 56%). Results showed that the majority of participants lived in two-person household and did not have children. Participants were likely to consume pasta sauce 4 ± 2.6 times a month. Eighty-six percent of the participants consumed six to seven home cooked meals in a week. Eighty-three percent were willing to purchase the pasta sauce prototype. The average price participants were willing to pay was $4.38, where men would pay $0.69 significantly more for a 750 ml jar than women. The pasta sauce with increased fibre content made with local food products may be a healthier option for baby boomers.     

Consumers' acceptance of a high-polyphenol yerba mate/black currant beverage: Effect of repeated tasting

The effect of repeated tasting may improve the acceptance level and positive emotions associated with an unusual food. Our aim was to analyze this effect on the consumer acceptance, emotional status, purchase intention and optimum level of sensory attributes of a yerba mate (YMI)/black currant (BC) drink with high polyphenol content and low palatability.Beverage formulations (%) were: YMI 50/BC 30 (S1); YMI 60/BC 20 (S2); YMI 60/BC 20/diet sweetener 0.05 (S3). All samples had 15% maltodextrin, 0.01% aroma and 5.0% sucrose. One hundred participants (70 female, 30 male) aged 25 to 63 years (M = 38.9, SD = 10.9) evaluated the same three samples (S1, S2 and S3) during four sessions to determine the influence of repeated exposure, taking the first session as a control. Acceptance was measured by a 9-point hedonic scale, purchase intent by a 5-point scale and attribute diagnosis (sourness, sweetness, astringency, aroma and body) by a Just About Right scale. Consumers selected at least three terms from a list of 12 words (well-being, displeasure, familiarity, sadness, fear, freshness, anguish, simplicity, relaxation, anger, joy and surprise) to describe their emotional status after tasting the samples. Results showed that the last session displayed the highest values for acceptance demonstrating a repeated exposure effect. The samples with less acceptability in session 1 (S1 and S2) were those with the greatest increase in session 4. Purchase intention was not affected by product exposure. The oldest consumer group (50–63 years old) exhibited the minimum levels of acceptance and purchase intention. The attribute diagnostic evaluations did not change through the four sessions indicating that the consumer opinion of its optimum point was maintained at the same level as the first impression. The word “familiarity” was selected for all the samples in the fourth and final session and also for sample 3 at session 3, confirming its impact and showing the exposure level necessary to develop it.     

Nudging product choices: The effect of position change on snack bar choice

The influence of product position in a row of three similar snacks with varying calorie contents was examined in a sample of 120 students (equal numbers of males and females). Three equally sized, real cereal snack bars were arranged on a vendor’s tray in three identical boxes. Two conditions were used. In the control condition, the three boxes of snack bars were positioned from left to right in ascending order of calorie content (apple/lowest calorie content = left position; apple-chocolate/high calorie content = middle position; coco-chocolate/highest calorie content = right position). In the experimental condition (nudged group), the left and middle box positions were exchanged (apple-chocolate/high calorie content = left position; apple/lowest calorie content = middle position; and coco-chocolate/highest calorie content = right position). There was a significant effect of position on participants’ snack bar selections (χ²₍₂₎ = 14.953, p = 0.001). When the apple bar was positioned on the left, it was selected 13.3% of the time (8/60), and when it was positioned in the middle, it was selected 36.3% of the time (22/60). There was no gender effect (χ²₍₂₎ = 0.713, p = 0.70). The apple bar with lowest calorie content was selected almost three times more often when it was placed in the middle than when it was placed on the left. Changing the physical placement of the snack improved snack choices. Rearranging snacks on shelves and checkout counters in grocery stores or vending machines in schools might be an easy, inexpensive and effective intervention measure to improve consumers’ snack choices.     

The influence of preparation method on children’s liking for vegetables

This study aimed to investigate how different preparation methods influence children’s liking for vegetables. Participants were children from three age groups (4–6 years N = 46; 7–8 years N = 25; 11–12 years N = 23) and young adults (18–25 years N = 22). The participants tasted and ranked six preparation methods for carrots and French beans: mashed, steamed, boiled, stir-fried, grilled and deep-fried. In addition, the different vegetable preparations were rated on 15 attributes. All participants preferred boiled and steamed vegetables over the other preparations (p < 0.05). Boiled and stir-fried were the most familiar preparation methods for both vegetables. Vegetable liking was positively related to a uniform surface and the typical vegetable taste, and moderately related to crunchiness, whereas brown colouring and a granular texture were negatively related to vegetable liking. On the basis of these results, we conclude that children’s vegetable liking is influenced by a complex mixture of a uniform appearance, easily controllable textures and a typical, familiar vegetable taste.     

Learning to associate compatible and incompatible pictures with food and non-food odours,within a stimulus equivalence paradigm

Within consumer research, it is acknowledged that influential and perhaps unconscious associations to products exist, which require indirect as well as direct methods of investigation. We examine the potential usefulness of one such indirect method, an application of the stimulus equivalence matching-to-sample paradigm [Sidman, M. (1971). Reading and auditory–visual equivalences. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 14, 5–13].Two experiments are reported (n = 15, n = 20). Both used three, 3-membered stimulus sets: A (food and non-food odours); B (nonsense syllables); and C (pictures), two of which were either ‘compatible’ or ‘incompatible’ with the corresponding items in the A set. Each participant took part in both ‘compatible’ and ‘incompatible’ conditions. First, (A → B), participants were trained to choose one of the three nonsense syllables when presented with one of the odours. Second, (B → C), those who had learned the first task (n = 10, n = 14) were trained to choose one of the three pictures when presented with one of the nonsense syllables, and finally, in a test phase (C → A), to choose one of the three odours when presented with one of the pictures. In both experiments, B → C trials to criterion and response times were significantly greater in the ‘incompatible’ condition, and the error structure differed between conditions. In other phases, no consistent inter-condition differences were found. We discuss the use of this paradigm in consumer research on odours and tastes as a very indirect way of measuring pre-existing associations.     

The effect of brand names on flavor perception and consumption in restrained and unrestrained eaters

In an increasingly obesogenic food environment, making healthful food decisions can be difficult. Because consumers are often bombarded with excessive information about foods they often rely on simple heuristics to decide whether to purchase or consume a food. In the present study we tested females who were either restrained (n = 33) or unrestrained (n = 33) to determine whether their sensory perception and intake of a food would be affected by brand information. Participants were provided with in an ad libitum snack of cookies which was labeled with a brand typically associated with healthful snacks or a brand associated with unhealthful snacks. Results indicated that all participants rated the cookies with the healthful brand label as more satisfying and as having a better taste and flavor. Furthermore, restrained eaters consumed more of the healthful brand than the unhealthful brand, whereas unrestrained eaters’ consumption did not differ. Thus it appears that food-related beliefs do influence consumers’ intake, especially that of restrained eaters. Further research is warranted to investigate these beliefs in order to improve recommendations for healthful eating in a society facing an increased prevalence of overeating and obesity.     

Do healthy,child-friendly fruit and vegetable snacks appeal to consumers? A field study exploring adults’ perceptions and purchase intentions

The majority of children in the U.S. do not consume enough fruits and vegetables (FV). Children’s liking of and preferences for FV are consistent predictors of intake, as are factors such as availability and accessibility, which are largely under the control of parents and caregivers. This study was designed to examine parents’ and caregivers’ current purchasing habits regarding child-friendly (CF)-shaped foods and pre-cut produce; determine their sensory perceptions of CF-shaped vs. regular-shaped pre-cut FV; and, to ascertain their willingness to pay slightly more for CF-shaped FV compared to fresh, whole produce. Healthy, CF-shaped fruit and vegetable snacks were developed by cutting FV into CF shapes (butterfly, chick, flower, teddy bear). Participants (n = 298) were adults, the majority of whom (66.1%) reported having children at home. Participants who reported having children at home consistently recognized CF-shaped fruit and vegetable samples as CF-shaped foods, while 64.4% of participants with children at home perceived regular-shaped pre-cut fruit and vegetable samples as CF-shaped foods. Participants rated CF-shaped samples as more visually appealing than regular-shaped samples, (p < 0.0001) and were 34% more likely to select CF-shaped samples. Female gender, the presence of children in the home, and frequent self-reported purchase of pre-cut produce were also significant positive predictors of visual appeal. Taste and texture ratings were not consistently significantly higher for CF-shaped fruit and vegetable samples. CF shape predicted higher willingness to pay extra for the fruit and vegetable product (p = 0.0057), as did frequent purchase of pre-cut produce and CF-shaped foods. Adults, particularly females and individuals with children in the household, find CF-shaped FV highly visually appealing and are willing to pay slightly more for these foods. Healthy, ready-to-eat, CF-shaped fruit and vegetable snacks may be a promising marketing strategy to help increase fruit and vegetable intake among children.     

Investigating individual preferences in rating and ranking conjoint experiments. A case study on semi-hard cheese

Stated preference conjoint experiments and self-explicated measures based on rating and ranking approaches were conducted to investigate Norwegian consumers’ choices among healthier and organically produced semi-hard cheeses. In the conjoint experiments, one group of participants (n = 114) performed a rating task of eight cheeses whereas the other group (n = 105) performed a ranking task of the same cheeses, all based on pictorial stimuli only. Then, all participants performed self-explicated rating and ranking evaluations of the cheese attributes. Conjoint rating data were analysed by mixed model ANOVA, while conjoint ranking data were analysed by mixed logit. The different approaches are compared in terms of data analysis methodologies, outcomes and practicalities for the experimenter as well as for the respondents. Rather than average population effects, focus is brought on individual preferences and consumer segmentation. Findings reveal that the two conjoint experiments lead to similar population effects and consumer segments. Consumers on average prefer cheeses of new (healthier) fat composition, organic production and lower price to cheeses of regular fat composition, conventional production and higher price. Two consumer segments are investigated. Consumers in the New fat segment are health-conscious, whereas consumers in the Regular fat segment are attracted by conventional cheese and lower prices. Self-explicated ratings of the cheese attributes corroborate these findings.     

Initial liking influences the development of acceptance learning across repeated exposure to fruit juices in 9–11 year-old children

In several studies, it has been found that repeated exposure to a novel food increases children’s acceptance of the exposure food. The present study, investigated how repeated exposure influences the acceptance of two Nordic berry juices, and whether the development depends on initial liking of the product, in 9–11 year-old children. The study had 317 participants. Two groups of children were exposed to either sea-buckthorn (n = 92) or aronia (n = 105) juice eight times, and performed two follow-up sessions 3 and 6 months after the 8th exposure. A third group (n = 120) served as controls. During pre and post-test sessions all participating children evaluated acceptance of both juices.Intake of sea-buckthorn juice increased significantly over the eight exposures (55.1 ± 7.3 till 108.8 ± 12.3) and remained high after 6 months (131.1 ± 13.2). Intake of aronia juice was only increased at follow-up sessions. Liking did not develop significantly for any of the juices across exposures. When children were grouped by their initial liking increased intake across exposures was observed regardless of initial liking of sea-buckthorn. Liking developed similarly for both juices. A significant increase was found for the ‘initial dislikers’ only. This study demonstrates how exposure effects are influenced by initial liking; it appears that changes in familiarity explain the changes seen for sea-buckthorn among ‘dislikers’. ‘Initial dislikers’ had the most benefit from repeated exposures, but did not reach ‘initial likers’ across eight exposures; more exposures in the group of ‘initial dislikers’ had possibly led to even higher liking and intake. The increased intake observed for ‘neutral likers’ and ‘initial likers’ of sea-buckthorn was not explained by increased familiarity or increased liking.     

Predictors of the consistency between healthy snack choice intentions and actual behaviour

The present study investigated the factors that affect the intention–behaviour consistency of healthy snack choices. Intended snack choice was assessed by asking participants (N = 538) to choose a snack on paper, out of 8 snacks (4 healthy, e.g. melon and gingerbread, and 4 unhealthy, e.g. crisps and chocolate). The next day participants chose one out of 8 different snacks for actual consumption. Participants completed a questionnaire about attitudes towards taste and health, habitual snack use, self-control, anticipated regret, and pleasantness of the snacks. Results showed that 24% of the participants with a healthy snack choice intention chose an unhealthy snack instead. Female gender, a high education level, a strong habitual healthy snack use, and a strong self-control increased the healthy intention–behaviour consistency. To facilitate healthy choices, interventions should target males and lower educated people, and focus on increasing their healthy snacking habit and self-control.     

Chinese consumers’ understanding and use of a food nutrition label and their determinants

This paper investigated Chinese consumers’ understanding and use of the Chinese food nutrition label and their determinants. Quantitative data were collected during March 2012 through a self-administrated structured questionnaire conducted in Beijing (n = 213) and Baoding city (n = 447). Questions assessed Chinese consumers’ use and understanding (objective and subjective) of food nutrition labels, nutrition knowledge (objective and subjective), socio-demographic characteristics, diet status, diet-health awareness, body mass index (BMI) and familiarity with food nutrition labels. A moderate degree of subjective understanding and a low degree of objective understanding of food nutrition labels were found among the participants, and 70% of the participants claimed to rarely or never use nutrition labels when shopping for food. Nutrition knowledge (objective and subjective) positively affected participants’ understanding (objective and subjective) of food nutrition labels. Familiarity with food nutrition labels had a strong positive effect on understanding of and use of food nutrition labels. Subjective nutrition knowledge and subjective understanding also played a significant and positive role in Chinese consumers’ label use. Age yielded a negative effect on both subjective and objective understanding, while education only affected participants’ objective understanding. None of the socio-demographic characteristics associated with self-reported use. Implications for future policies to improve Chinese consumers’ understanding and promote their use of food nutrition labels are discussed.     

Manipulations that influence stereotypes of the weight-gain potential of foods

The present study examined the impact of two manipulations on beliefs of the weight-gain potential of foods. Respondents (n = 230) compared foods that are often perceived to be unhealthy to similar- or higher-calorie foods that are often perceived to be healthy in terms of their capacity to promote weight gain. A portion of the respondents were provided information about energy amounts of the foods while the remaining respondents were not. Also, an experimental manipulation examined whether holding the total daily energy intake at 2000 kcal had any impact on the findings. The caloric information presented had at best a modest effect on respondents’ ratings of the foods. However, generally regardless of the information provided the respondents viewed “unhealthy” foods as weight promoters (compared to “healthy” foods) and only fat content (not energy density or kcal, fiber and sugar content) predicted which foods would be judged to promote weight gain. A simple and handy stereotype appears to be the most convenient method for most people to evaluate the weight-gain potential of food names even when more accurate information (energy content) is available.     

Influence of genotype and environment on the dietary fiber content of field pea (Pisum sativum L.) grown in Canada

The insoluble fiber (IDF), soluble fiber (SDF) and total dietary fiber (TDF) contents of six field pea (Pisum sativum L.) genotypes from five growing locations in Saskatchewan in the 2006 and 2007 growing seasons were analyzed to investigate the possible effect of genotype, environment and year on fiber content. Samples were analyzed using the enzymatic–gravimetric method of fiber analysis. Growing location had a significant effect (p < 0.0001) on IDF, SDF and TDF content. Genotype had a strong effect (p < 0.0001) on both IDF and TDF content, while having no significant effect (p = 0.40) on SDF content. Crop year displayed a significant effect on SDF and TDF (p < 0.0001) content while having a smaller effect on IDF content (p < 0.01). Green cotyledon genotypes exhibited significantly higher IDF and TDF contents (p < 0.05) than did yellow genotypes. Significant genotype × location (p < 0.05) and location × year (p < 0.001) interaction terms were observed for TDF content.     

The ripening influence of two papaya cultivars on carotenoid biosynthesis and radical scavenging capacity

Carotenoid biosynthesis in papaya fruits from the cultivars (cv.) ‘Golden’ and ‘Sunrise Solo’ was studied throughout three different ripening stages. The content of these secondary metabolites was assessed using HPLC–PDA–MSⁿ. Carotenoid levels increased during ripening, with all-trans-lycopene varying from 0.73 to 1.58 μg/g in the cv. ‘Golden’ and from 0.68 to 1.67 μg/g in the cv. ‘Sunrise Solo’. The all-trans-β-cryptoxanthin content varied from 1.29 to 3.0 μg/g in the cv. ‘Golden’ and from 0.28 to 5.13 μg/g in the cv. ‘Sunrise Solo’. The Zds gene showed a different pattern of expression during the ripening and between cultivars, while the Lcyβ gene expression was up-regulated in the two cultivars. The capacity to scavenge peroxyl radicals did not show a significant difference among the ripening stages and between the different cultivars. This study describes, for the first time, a tentative correlation between carotenoid biosynthesis in papaya pulp and the gene expression of the enzymes related to this pathway.     

Is there a fit in cognitive and sensory evaluation of yogurt? The moderating role of nutrition training

Food selection at a particular occasion is guided by properties of the food itself (sensory or intrinsic properties), but also by the information provided with the food, for example, packaging information (extrinsic properties). We compared preference responses of 71 consumers with a considerable type 2 diabetes risk, who had undergone nutrition counseling in a prevention program, in sensory assessments and product evaluation integrated into Adaptive Conjoint Analysis with the response of a healthy control group (n = 101). Vanilla yogurt, varied in composition (fat content, sugar content, flavor intensity) and packaging information (fat content, sugar content, flavor intensity), was used as stimulus material. Both groups of consumers preferred yogurt with a higher fat content on the basis of sensory evaluation, but rejected products with a higher fat content (10 g/100 g) when this information was available on the package. The degree of rejection was significantly higher for the high risk group. Whereas both groups preferred reduced-sugar yogurt on the basis of declaration, preferences towards the less sweet product were only observed for the high risk group.     

Biochemical changes throughout the ripening of a traditional Spanish goat cheese variety (Babia-Laciana)

The physico-chemical characteristics, proteolysis (classical nitrogen fractions, caseins and their degradation products and free amino acids), and lipolysis (fat acidity and free fatty acids) were studied throughout the ripening of three batches of Babia-Laciana cheese, a Spanish traditional variety made from raw goats’ milk. The main compositional characteristics of this cheese at the end of the ripening are its high content of total solids (TS) (78.0±2.4 g 100 g⁻¹ of cheese) and fat (61.1±1.2 g 100 g⁻¹ of TS), the presence of residual lactose (1.6±0.8 g 100 g⁻¹ of TS) and its low content of sodium chloride (1.1±0.7 g 100 g⁻¹ of TS) and ash (2.8±0.5 g 100 g⁻¹ of TS). Its pH values (4.44±0.72) are extraordinarily low. The evolution and final values of the different nitrogen fractions show that this cheese undergoes a very slight proteolysis, a fact which was corroborated when the caseins and their degradation products were quantified: β-casein did not undergo any modification throughout ripening, while only 21% of the α_s-caseins were degraded. Free amino acids content increased by a factor of about 7 throughout ripening, resulting in a high content of γ-amino butyric acid and a low content of glutamic acid at the end of the process. Fat acidity increased very slightly, approximately 4.5 times, during ripening, reaching final values of 3.5±2.2 mg KOH g⁻¹ of fat. The total free fatty acids content showed a similar evolution to fat acidity. At the end of the ripening process, the main free fatty acid was C_18:1, followed by C₁₆ and C₁₀.