A preliminary study of the relationship between Australian wine consumers' wine expertise and their wine purchasing and consumption behaviour

Few Australian wine companies have the resources to acquire consumer relevant information to assist their strategic decision-making. This exploratory study examined the relationship between Australian consumers' wine expertise and their self-reported wine related behaviours, such as wine purchasing and consumption. A measure of consumer wine expertise developed specifically for the Australian consumer, comprising a wine knowledge test and an aroma identification (sensory) test, was used to segment 61 wine consumers into three expertise levels. A large positive correlation between wine expertise and formal wine training was demonstrated. Data showed that females dominated the low and males the high expertise groups, respectively. The high expertise level consumers spent more on wine, purchased more bottles and fewer casks per month and consumed more wine in a week than the low and medium expertise groups. Analysis revealed significant differences between the styles of wine consumed by the various expertise levels. A combination of Factor and Cluster analyses generated three distinct consumer segment profiles based on wine purchase drivers. These preliminary data indicate that wine consumers' wine behaviour may be influenced by their wine expertise.     

Target groups for organic wine: The importance of segmentation analysis

In light of low and stagnating market shares of organic wine, there is an ongoing debate about growth potential for organic wine. A recent study revealed that even consumers of organic food did not necessarily purchase organic wine regularly. The aim of this contribution was to analyse the wine preferences of organic food consumers and identify promising new target groups for organic wine. We conducted choice experiments in Germany (N = 600) and analysed the data with mixed logit models and latent class models, revealing interesting differences between the results of the two approaches. While the mixed logit models suggested ‘organic’ was the most important wine attribute, the latent class models challenged this proposition. While three of four consumer segments had a strong preference for organic, only one segment in the red wine model (and no segment in the white wine model) gave organic highest priority. Just like non-organic consumers, many organic food consumers seem to use price or country of origin as the most important quality cue for wine. The comparison between the results of the choice experiments and the participants’ stated normal purchase behaviour suggested there is growth potential for organic wine. Apparently, consumers of organic food would buy more organic wine if their preferred type and variety of conventional wine would be available in organic quality at similar price levels.     

Antecedents of consumer brand loyalty in the Australian wine industry

The wine industry has become fiercely competitive worldwide and as a result, consumers are increasingly exposed to a wider range of wines in retail outlets. This expanding consumer choice means that there is a need for Australian wineries to develop and build consumer loyalty toward their brands. This paper aims to empirically examine the factors influencing consumer loyalty to wine brands. Using data from Australian wine consumers, the authors empirically test a model of antecedents of wine brand loyalty. The model considers wine brand trust, wine brand satisfaction, wine knowledge, and wine experience. Hypotheses were tested with structural equation modeling. The findings of this study show that wine knowledge and wine experience affect wine brand loyalty indirectly through wine brand trust and wine brand satisfaction. In addition, it is demonstrated that consumer satisfaction with a wine brand is the strongest driver of wine brand loyalty. The result of this study has value for Australian wineries, wine retailers, and wine marketers.     

Relative preference mapping (RPM) – A novel approach for simultaneous 2D relative scoring of difference and liking to identify consumer preference for innovative wine styles

At Australian wine shows, public tastings after formal judging provide an efficient condition for consumer preference testing to identify wine styles that are both liked and innovative. The aim of this study was to devise a method to conveniently obtain that information. We developed a new method, relative preference mapping (RPM), based on projective mapping and using relative scoring, to make the task cognitively less demanding. Using wine consumers, we tested the concept of a two dimensional (2D) labelled map to identify an innovative product and determined the level of difficulty in using a map scale.. The RPM method highlighted innovative wine styles – those wines that were simultaneously liked and considered different to a reference (gold medal wine). Liking results from the RPM method were similar to results from the traditional 9-point hedonic scale, providing validity for the preference component of the new method. RPM conveniently and simultaneously identifies preferred and innovative wine styles in a 2D product map, a unique contribution that no other scale is capable of achieving.     

Consumer rejection threshold for 1,8-cineole (eucalyptol) in Australian red wine

The compound 1,8-cineole is known to elicit the perception of eucalyptus flavour. There is debate over whether eucalyptus flavour is positive or should be considered a taint in red wine. The current experiment measured a consumer rejection threshold (CRT) in red wine, using samples spiked with increasing concentrations of cineole. Results estimated the CRT in red wine at 27.5 ppb. Analysis of a post-experiment questionnaire suggested that preference for cineole is not significantly influenced by gender, age, level of experience or prior experience, though these results were based on a small sample. Results suggest that a moderate intensity of eucalyptus character in red wine should not be considered a taint and that some consumers may consider moderate intensities preferable to no eucalyptus character. The CRT determined allows quantitative decisions to be made in response to measured levels of cineole in red wine. Winemakers and wine marketers considering promoting eucalyptus character as a taste dimension in wine now have a quantitative basis on which to be guided.     

Comparison of best–worst and hedonic scaling for the measurement of consumer wine preferences

Background and Aims:  Best–worst scaling (BWS) is compared to standard hedonic scaling for measuring consumer wine preferences. BWS is a relatively new method for producing ratio-level scales and has gained recent attention for application in sensory research, but has not been applied to wine.
Methods and Results:  Regular wine consumers (112) evaluated eight designed wines with both scaling methods in an intra-subject design over two test periods. The methods did not result in comparable product liking results. The eight wines could almost be differentiated on an aggregated level with hedonic ratings ( P  = 0.076); there was no significant difference with BWS. Latent class analysis was used to identify two clusters, which differed on the preferences for the designed sensory components. The BWS design had to be split into several blocks, so no complete individual measures were available, which prevented analysing heterogeneity for this method.
Conclusions:  BWS needs more wines to be assessed per person in order to discriminate between red wines and to allow modelling of consumer preference heterogeneity. Respondents would have to accomplish complete individual BWS designs, which requires repeated exposure to the same set of wines over several tasting sessions.
Significance of the Study:  This study demonstrates that BWS is not as suitable for sensory consumer preference measurement of red wine as hedonic rating. While BWS has shown a higher discriminative ability for different products and in non-sensory research, the factors of alcohol, tannin and memory fatigue make it less practical for red wine sensory measurement compared to hedonic rating.     

Searching a specific bottle for Tannat wine using a check-all-that apply question and conjoint analysis

An increasing share of fine wines is marketed through retail stores. In this context, packaging plays a major role in attracting consumers’ attention and influencing their purchase decisions. The aim of the present work was to identify a specific bottle for Tannat red wine, the typical Vitis vinifera grape of Uruguay, by studying the effect of bottle shape and colour on consumers’ sensory expectations and willingness to purchase. A consumer study was carried out with 64 fine wine consumers, who were first introduced a list of bottle colours and shapes and were asked to answer a check-all-that-apply question. Then, participants were asked to complete a conjoint analysis task about Tannat wine bottles. Results from the check-all-that-apply question showed that consumers associated the shape and colour of bottles with specific types and styles of wine. Conjoint analysis suggested that Bordeaux dark green or dark gray bottles might be the most appropriate for Tannat wine. Interestingly, results shown here may indicate the existence of risks if deep innovation is made in bottle shape designs, since consumers clearly preferred Bordeaux bottles for red wines.     

Effect of meat appearance on consumer preferences for pork chops in Greece and Cyprus

The effect of meat appearance on consumers’ preferences for pork chops was assessed using images manipulated for appearance characteristics. Data were collected from 412 consumers in Greece and Cyprus. Consumers were asked for their preference for pork chops from a book of computer-modified images and then completed a questionnaire of socio-demographic information, including eating and purchasing behaviour. Consumers under the age of 35 years showed preferences for dark red, lean pork, while consumers aged 35 years and older preferred either dark or light red pork. Gender appeared to be an important selection factor as men showed an increased preference for dark red pork while women preferred the light red. Consumers who stated that they like pork for its taste (91%) preferred either dark or light red pork chops while those who like pork for reasons other than taste preferred dark red, lean pork. Urban consumers preferred light red, fatty pork chops while the rural consumers preferred the dark red pork chops.     

Optimization of blended wine quality through maximization of consumer liking

A mixture design was used to optimize blended Vitis vinifera wines (Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot and Zinfandel) for consumer acceptability. Consumer overall liking values were modeled within an augmented simplex centroid mixture design to determine areas of desirability for each consumer. Two major segments of consumers were identified, with membership mainly dependent upon responses to Zinfandel. Samples were less polarizing when the wines were blended as opposed to remaining as single wines. Three optimized blends were created: for all consumers, segment 1 and segment 2. A subsequent consumer study indicated that optimized blends for each segment were not significantly different from the other wines. However, segment 2 consumers preferred the segment 2 blend to the wine blend optimized across all consumers. The optimized blend across all consumers was the least liked for each segment. Identifying consumer segments can help better optimize products for successful entry into the marketplace. Optimizing a product within a mixture design environment is a useful, efficient technique to understand ingredient interactions and how they affect overall consumer acceptance.     

An exploratory study of urban South African consumers’ perceptions of wine and wine consumption: focus on social,emotional, and functional factors

Wine is of great economic and cultural significance for South Africa, but some population groups were until relatively recently denied equal access to wine and alcohol products. The South African wine industry has launched various campaigns in recent years that aimed at portraying wine as an acceptable and attractive choice when alcohol consumption is considered. It is therefore appropriate now to investigate whether these endeavors of the South African wine industry have resulted in particular consumer behavior and preferences that could serve as input to enhance strategies when marketing to South African consumers. This study uses the thematic analysis method to identify themes that could be of value for wine marketers. To collect data for the study, a total of 44 consumers were assigned to 6 focus groups. Eight main themes driving consumer choices emerged from the data: journey and role of life-stage, context of consumption, conceptualizations, barriers, price and purchasing, bottle closures, health, sensory perception, and cultivars. The influences of gender and ethnicity on consumers’ perceptions of wine and wine consumption were investigated. Gender produced the biggest differences in respect of respondents’ perceptions about wine and wine consumption whilst ethnicity did not appear to be of any significance.     

The influence of perceived healthiness on wine consumption patterns

Consumers are increasingly sensitive to the health qualities of foods and beverages they consume. Evidence remains equivocal about wine’s health affordance, but the media often present it as fact. It is difficult to predict how many consumers believe wine is healthy and the relationship between that belief and consumption. In the present study 1050 adult wine consumers were interviewed about their perception that wine is healthy, their demographic characteristics, and consumption patterns. Results indicated those most likely to perceive wine as healthy were older males with a higher income, but the strength of association was weak. Those perceiving wine as healthy had a higher frequency but not volume of consumption. CAGE (potential alcoholism) scores were independent of the perception that wine is healthy. Based on these results, there is no reason to suppose consumers’ wellbeing will be threatened by their behavioural response to positive information on health benefits of wine.     

Dynamic changes of taste experiences in wine and cheese combinations

The ideal cheese and wine combination might be relatively subjective, depending on personal preference, context factors, previous knowledge and experience of food and wine. The aim of this study was to (I) explore consumer liking for wine and cheese pairs; to (II) explore whether either wine or cheese dominates a combination and to (III) understand the relationship between consumer liking and the dynamic taste experience. Consumer testing was performed in a restaurant setting where 45 consumers evaluated liking and dominance of combinations of cheese and wine as a part of a conference lunch. In a laboratory, Temporal Dominance of Sensation (TDS) was used to analyse the dynamic responses of five wines and Roquefort Société tasted in a mixed tasting. Results show significant differences between the wines for dominance and liking for the wines and cheese. A sweet and fruity dessert wine together with the cheese scored high for liking and no dominance was indicated of either wine or cheese. TDS is found to be a useful method to provide additional information about sensory attributes that give a high liking score, showing the dynamic in the eating process.     

Comparison of consumer perception and liking of <Emphasis Type="Italic">bulgogi</Emphasis> marinade sauces between Korea and Japan using flash profiling

This study compared the perception of and preference for seven bulgogi marinade sauces between Korean and Japanese consumers. Flash profiling (10 panelists each) and consumer test (97 Japanese and 102 Koreans) were conducted. Results showed that both Korean and Japanese panelists perceived the samples similarly but described using different terms. There were significant crosscultural differences in most liking and just-about-right attributes, except texture liking and sweetness. Both consumer panelists preferred sweeter samples, but Japanese consumers rated liking for less sweet samples higher than Korean consumers. Japanese consumers considered strong saltiness, umami, and soy sauce flavor as “just-about-right,” whereas Korean consumers considered the same levels as “much too strong”. Familiarity showed a significantly positive correlation with both Korean and Japanese consumers’ liking, but authenticity was only significantly correlated with Korean consumers’ liking. This indicates that perception of authenticity might not have a strong impact on Japanese consumers’ liking.     

Estimating a “consumer rejection threshold” for cork taint in white wine

Cork taint in wine produced by 2,4,6-trichloroanisole (TCA) is characterised by generally unacceptable musty or earthy odours. Estimates of TCA threshold in wine have been reported in the low parts per trillion (ppt) range, although it is not clear at what levels TCA begins to render a wine unacceptable. We conducted two studies to address this question by using a method that combined a paired preference test with a method of constant stimuli threshold procedure. The aim was to determine the point at which wine consumers would begin to reject a wine containing TCA, which we termed the consumer rejection threshold (CRT). Regular white wine consumers (Ss) received pairs of samples of white wine––one spiked with TCA in eight ascending concentrations––and were asked to indicate which of the samples was preferred. Detection thresholds (DT) for TCA in wine were also determined using triangle tests. The CRT and DT were 3.1 and 2.1 ppt, respectively. CRT and DT were significantly positively correlated with one another, and negatively correlated with TCA knowledge. A replication provided a similar CRT value, and suggested that a percentage of consumers are either highly insensitive to TCA or do not find it objectionable. These results suggest that the use of this method may provide a rational basis on which to assess the real impact of TCA in white wine.     

Are Australian wine consumers willing to pay for the expert service of wine retailers?

Retailing is continually evolving with different strategies used over time. In this era of customer relationships building, this study investigated an innovation gap; about Australian consumers' willingness to pay (WTP) a premium for the expert service of wine retailers. The study objectives were to evaluate factors that influence WTPs of wine retailers and to measure WTPs. A 2099 usable survey was obtained Australia-wide. The contingent valuation method was used to elicit the willingness of consumers. The data were analysed using the ordered probit model. On average, the premium respondents indicated WTP was $0.60 for the expert service of wine retailers. This study found that consumers are willing to pay for the expert service of wine retailers, and that consumers rely on the use of risk reduction strategy not only because of their perception of risk but they are also more desirous of wine knowledge and are willing to acquire it, even at a cost. This makes a strong case for the development and provision strategies of store dynamic elements such as expert service. The study has limitation as it is exploratory and cross-sectional. Confirmatory and longitudinal surveys amongst others are recommended.     

Sensory Perceptions by Koreans of Dry-Salted Wheat Noodles

A consumer preference study on dry-salted noodles prepared from ten diverse types of Australian wheat was conducted in Korea and Australia using a commercial Korean noodle as a control sample. Two independent panels in Korea were similar in their discriminatory responses to individual samples indicating a well-defined preference for noodle quality. Evaluation with Koreans resident in Australia for less than 2 years showed a similar preference trend to the indigenous Koreans, but Koreans resident in Australia for 7 years showed a reversed preference pattern. Data from panels in Australian noodle research laboratories also showed a similar preference pattern to the long-term Korean residents. Thus, it appears that Koreans and Australians have different taste preferences for dry-salted noodles and that Koreans resident in Australia gradually change their taste sensitivities to resemble Australian preferences. © 1997 SCI.