Public and private standards for dried culinary herbs and spices—Part I: Standards defining the physical and chemical product quality and safety

Dried spices and culinary herbs are vulnerable products, which are used for their aroma (and colour). They are important ingredients in many processed foods, e.g. meat products, dairy products, and bakery products, and in most of our dishes. Food processors and consumers have high expectations regarding the organoleptic quality of culinary herbs and spices. Moreover, although used at relatively low amounts, herbs and spices can represent a health threat to the consumer, e.g. when contaminated with mycotoxins or adulterated with harmful colourants. The current review provides an overview from a European perspective on product standards covering (i) general physical and chemical specifications important for product quality and (ii) chemical characteristics concerning the safety of culinary herbs and spices. Focus is given to standards addressing dried culinary herbs and spices on global and European Union (EU) level. At some points, additional information on fresh herbs and on some national standards of non-EU member states is provided.General specifications for individual herbs and spices based on international agreements are developed by the International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) and are currently under development by the Codex Alimentarius Commission. Besides global standards, the review outlines product specifications for dried culinary herbs and spices that are defined by national bodies and industry associations. To reduce potential chemical hazards, specific maximum and action levels are laid down for culinary herbs and spices. In EU law, these address besides residues of pesticides certain mycotoxins, heavy metals, persistent organic pollutants, and additives as described in the following.     

DNA barcoding as a tool for detecting mislabeling of fishery products imported from third countries: An official survey conducted at the Border Inspection Post of Livorno-Pisa (Italy)

The importation of fishery products into the European Union (EU) is constantly rising. The aim of this study was to conduct a survey on labeling non-compliances on fishery products imported from extra-European countries, in collaboration with the veterinary staff of the Border Inspection Post of Livorno-Pisa (BIP), of the Italian Ministry of Health. The correspondence between the products' identity and the scientific denominations reported on the accompanying certificates was checked using the DNA barcoding method. Overall, 277 products belonging to different categories (fish, cephalopods, crustaceans, bivalves, amphibian) were submitted to analysis for species identification. The comparison of the molecular results with the scientific names declared on the accompanying documents showed that 22.5% (95%CI 17.8–28.0) of the analyzed products were mislabeled. The highest percentage of mislabeling was observed on cephalopod based products (43.8%, 95% CI 32.3–55.9), followed by crustaceans (17.0%, 95% CI 9.2–29.2) and fish (14.0%, 95% CI 8.7–21.9). A higher rate was found in products imported from China, Vietnam and Thailand. The present study is the first survey on mislabeling in products sampled at BIPs in Italy. The results highlight the need of implementing analytical checks, based on DNA analysis, on incoming fishery products.     

Distribution of irradiated foods in China

To determine whether the commercial foods were irradiated or not, an investigation was carried out in this study. One hundred and thirty-three commercial foods, including 33 spices, 20 dehydrated vegetables, 64 dehydrated fruits, and 16 pollens were tested by thermoluminescence (TL) method. The results showed 30 of them (22.6% of all tested samples) were proved to be irradiated. Our investigation provided a primary data for the regulation of irradiated food in China.     

Isolation,identification and antimicrobial resistance of Cronobacter spp. isolated from various foods in China

Cronobacter spp. are important foodborne pathogens that can cause severe diseases such as meningitis, sepsis, and necrotizing enterocolitis in neonates. In this study, 195 food samples, including cereals, cereal products, powdered infant formula (PIF), infant food formula, herbs, spices, vegetables, and fruits, were analyzed for the presence of Cronobacter spp. by culture-based method. The presumptive isolates were further confirmed by targeting the 16S rDNA gene using PCR. Out of 195 samples, 13 samples (6.7%) were positive for Cronobacter species. 12 of 85 cereal and cereal products (14.1%), and 1 of 22 herbs and spices (4.5%) were contaminated. In contrast, no Cronobacter was detected in commercial powdered infant formula, infant food formula, vegetables, or fruits. Alignment of 16S rRNA gene sequences showed that 13 isolates was most closely related to the genus Cronobacter. Polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) analysis revealed that Cronobacter sakazakii was the only Cronobacter species isolated from various food samples. The antimicrobial susceptibility of 13 Cronobacter isolates was determined by the standard disk diffusion method. All isolated strains, except one resistant to ampicillin, were sensitive or displayed intermediate susceptibility to the 10 antimicrobial agents investigated. No multiple drug resistance was observed.     

National seasoning practices and factors affecting the herb and spice consumption habits in Europe

This study aimed to recognize herb and spice consumption habits as well as to explore certain factors having an influence on it in seven (Austria, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Latvia, Slovakia, the Netherlands) member states of the European Union. A self-administered questionnaire survey was conducted in each country, comprising of 1731 European adults regularly preparing food at home. Pepper and paprika, as well as parsley and basil were found to be the most frequently consumed spices and herbs, respectively. Validation of the ‘spice consumption’ model indicated that knowledge regarding health issues of herbs and spices was of high importance, which may have had favourable effects on the consumption habits. In conclusion, this study suggests that emphasising of health issues − directly or as incorporated into gastronomic elements − can be a useful tool for the expansion of herb and spice consumption, as well as globalizing of national cuisines and the consumption of typical national spices and country specific characteristics which can be still identified in Europe.     

Irradiation of food

On a global scale, somewhere between one quarter and one third of the world's food supply is lost postharvest as a result of too rapid ripening, growth in storage, insect infestation and bacterial and fungal attack. To alleviate these problems, ionizing radiation, e.g. gamma rays, X-rays or electrons, can be used to extend the life of certain fruits and vegetables by delaying ripening or killing moulds, and for the control of insect infestation of grain and other stored products. Ionizing radiation also provides an effective alternative to chemical treatments for the prevention of sprouting in stored potatoes and onions and for the treatment of herbs and spices. More importantly, from a public health point of view, ionizing radiation can be used to kill, or reduce significantly, the number of pathogenic bacteria, e.g. Salmonella, Campylobacter, Vibrio, Listeria, in a variety of other foods, such as poultrymeat and shellfish.     

Current activities in food irradiation as a sanitary and phytosanitary treatment in the Asia and the Pacific Region and a comparison with advanced countries

Irradiation is an effective and safe method of food preservation, as it reduces spoilage, improves food hygiene, and extends shelf life. In October 2013, experts from Asia and Pacific Region gathered in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia to share information on the application of food irradiation. The participants of the meeting discussed and analyzed the strengths and weaknesses of food irradiation with a view to sustainably continue the activity in the participating countries. The latest information in the Asia/Pacific Region regarding regulations, irradiation facilities and quantities irradiated is provided in this paper. The current status of food irradiation is reviewed and compared with the United States of America (USA) and European Union (EU). Activities on of food irradiation at commercial scale have increased significantly in these countries during last few years. Attention is also focused on the phytosanitary treatment of fruits and vegetables. Possible reasons for slow adoption of food irradiation and points to enhance the technology are also outlined.     

Culture-independent quantification of pathogenic bacteria in spices and herbs using real-time polymerase chain reaction

A culture-independent method was developed for quantification of pathogenic bacteria in spices and herbs. The method is based on DNA extraction using cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) and on real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR). When evaluated with spices (black pepper, paprika) and herbs (oregano, parsley) artificially contaminated with Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella enterica or Escherichia coli, the method demonstrated quantitative response with linear calibration lines and quantification limits of 10²–10⁴ CFU/g. The developed method is suitable for rapid microbiological analysis of spices and herbs, taking 8–9 h.     

Reporting of traceability and food safety data in the culinary herb and spice chains

Reporting of information is crucial to enable backward and forward tracing of food along the chain, which is of main importance in case of non-compliance with legal obligations on food safety. Thus, food business operators in the European Union (EU) must enable tracing of any foodstuff one step forward and one step back. However, flux of information relevant for traceability and food safety can be a challenge in the supply chains of dried culinary herbs and spices.Results of a survey among herb/spice businesses – either located within the EU or exporting dried herbs/spices to the EU – showed the widespread use of electronic systems for recording and processing of traceability/food safety data. However, automated capture of transaction data and automated read-out/processing of reported data were rare. The survey indicates that besides electronic documents, typed paper documents are often exchanged between businesses. For data delivery along the chain, paper documents filled in by hand are still used – even in the EU or upon import to the EU. The document type as well as the forms varied, particularly in case of incoming herbs/spices. The forms used for reporting by the survey participants or by their suppliers covered mostly individual/company-specific forms. Standardised forms provided by herb/spice associations were rarely shared between these businesses. The extent of reporting of traceability data upon import to the EU and within the EU appears to be sufficient. Some additional traceability data that promote product tracing, such as the country of harvest, were frequently reported. Same was true for information on food safety hazards.     

Use of spice mixtures for the stabilisation of fresh portioned pork

During storage, fresh portioned meat is prone to microbial decay accompanied by smell and colour deterioration. As spices possess anti-microbial activity, they might be used for prolonging the shelf-life of meat. The present communication reports first results concerning this topic. Five spice mixtures adapted to the European taste were studied with respect to their stabilising effect on colour and smell of fresh portioned pork. Two of these spice mixtures were especially active. These mixtures diminished the bacterial count of pork and inhibited the growth of various meat-spoiling microorganisms in a model medium.     

DNA barcoding for the identification of common economic aquatic products in Central China and its application for the supervision of the market trade

Common economic aquatic products are important contributors to the human food supply. However, with the rapid globalization of the aquatic products industry, aquatic products market has become increasingly disordered. Therefore, an accurate and convenient method for identifying common economic aquatic products is important and necessary in many areas. DNA barcoding, which constitutes the analysis of a short fragment of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) sequence, has been widely used in species identification. To discriminate common economic aquatic species using DNA barcoding, we collected 534 COI barcode sequences of 66 common species consisting of 39 fish, 9 crustaceans and 18 mollusks. The intraspecific genetic distances based on the Kimura 2-parameter (K2P) model were less than 1.37% for fish, 7.32% for crustaceans and 3.40% for mollusks, whereas the intragenus distances ranged from 3.91% to 13.82% for fish, 14.99%–16.17% for crustaceans and 14.82%–16.36% for mollusks. The average intraspecific K2P distance was also compared with the average intragenus distance. The taxonomic resolution ratio values obtained for fish, crustaceans and mollusks were 58.50, 21.59 and 27.63 respectively, which are higher than the threshold of (10×). A neighbor-joining (NJ) tree based on the K2P distance, and a maximum likelihood (ML) tree, based on the GTR + I + G model, were constructed, and all of the species could be identified unambiguously in the trees with several branches exhibiting high bootstrap values. Our results demonstrated high efficiency of DNA barcoding as an efficient molecular tool for the identification of common economic aquatic products, and 8 substitute species were successfully detected in 66 species. Our analyses also indicated that the common aquatic products trade industry could be effectively monitored and managed by DNA barcoding. Therefore, a simple identification database of common economic aquatic products was constructed.     

Irradiation: a critical control point in ensuring the microbiological safety of raw foods

The widespread and increasing incidence of foodborne diseases and the resultant social and economic impact on the human population have brought food safety to the forefront of public health concerns. This has prompted public health authorities worldwide to reassess their methods of food safety assurance, and to resort to a more cost-effective, preventive method that is known as hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP). Ensuring food safety depends on effective control measures, i.e., methods to prevent food contamination and, when necessary, decontamination. Present production methods cannot totally prevent food contamination, and the complexity of food handling and processing provides ample opportunity for contamination as well as survival and growth of pathogenic organisms. It is also unlikely that the methods of production can ensure foods totally free from in the near future, for many pathogens are part of the normal flora of the environment. The application of an HACCP-based approach as a method for the management of hazards of the food chain demonstrates the need for applying a cold decontamination treatment as a control measure in the production of foods which are to be marketed raw or minimally processed. Irradiation (increasingly referred to as “cold pasteurization”) is such a control measure in the production of several types of raw or minimally processed foods such as poultry, meat and meat products, fish, seafood, and fruits and vegetables. In the production of these foodstuffs, irradiation may thus be a critical control point (CCP). It has the potential to eliminate vegetative forms of bacterial pathogens as well as parasites. Moreover, irradiation fulfils other criteria for a CCP, i.e., critical limits (minimum and maximum doses) can be established and monitored, and process control is well known. Corrective actions can also be taken when necessary. Irradiation is a safe technology and has been recognized as such by the FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Commission. It certainly merits the attention of industry and public health authorities. Today, 40 countries permit the irradiation of one or more foodstuffs: 12 countries have approved its use for pathogen control in poultry, 8 other for use in meats, and 13 in fish and seafood.     

Application of the EN 1788 European standard for the control of saffron,pepper and blends

Twenty-five samples of saffron (11), pepper (9) and herbs, seasonings and spice blends (5) from Asia, South America, Africa and Europe have been analyzed by means of the EN 1788 protocol. The thermoluminescence (TL) emission of minerals isolated from the foodstuffs allows us to differentiate between irradiated (1) and non-irradiated (24) samples. According to the X-ray diffraction and environmental scanning microscope, the mineralogical composition adhered to the samples is mainly made up of different amounts of quartz, calcite, mica, gypsum, K and Na-rich feldspars, kaolinite, clinochlore and (only in mixtures) halite. All of them are sensitive to ionizing radiation, exhibit enough TL intensity, have high stability of the TL signal during the storage of the material, and are thermally and chemically stable. The EN 1788 European Standard arises as a reasonable protocol to discriminate among irradiated and non-irradiated food; nevertheless, it has some limitations that are discussed in the paper.     

European alerting and monitoring data as inputs for the risk assessment of microbiological and chemical hazards in spices and herbs

Food chains are susceptible to contaminations from food-borne hazards, including pathogens and chemical contaminants. An assessment of the potential product-hazard combinations can be supported by using multiple data sources. The objective of this study was to identify the main trends of food safety hazards in the European spice and herb chain, and then, evaluate how the data sources can be used during each step of a microbiological and a toxicological risk assessment. Thereafter, the possibilities and limitations of the selected data sources for the risk assessment of certain hazards in spices and herbs are examined. European governmental alerting and monitoring data and legislation were examined and evaluated for particular product-hazard combinations. Pathogenic microorganisms, particularly Salmonella spp. and pathogenic Bacillus spp., were identified as a potential concern in black pepper and dried herbs, while mycotoxins like aflatoxin (B₁) and ochratoxin A were a probable concern in chilies (including chili powder and cayenne), paprika, and nutmeg. Evaluating multiple, accessible, data sources can support several steps during the risk assessment process as seen for the hazard identification step. Therefore, identifying the potential spice and herb food safety hazards in the chain and other specific data can support risk assessors in compiling a comprehensive risk assessment.     

Potential of high-throughput sequencing for broad-range detection of pathogenic bacteria in spices and herbs

A broad-range culture-independent method was developed and evaluated regarding its sensitivity of detection of pathogenic bacteria in spices and herbs, with focus on paprika powder. The method involved DNA extraction using cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB), 16S rDNA amplification using universal bacterial polymerase chain reaction, and high-throughput sequencing on Illumina MiSeq platform. The sensitivity of the method was evaluated with series of model samples contaminated at different levels with Salmonella enterica and Escherichia coli (as representatives of Gram-negative bacteria) and Staphylococcus aureus (as a representative of Gram-positive bacteria). For spices (paprika, black pepper), the method had a screening-level sensitivity with limits of detection in the range of 10⁴–10⁵ CFU/g, and a semi-quantitative response. Low sensitivity (LOD ≥10⁷ CFU/g) was observed with herbs (oregano, parsley). The developed method demonstrated a good potential for microbiological screening of spices, with a prospect of further improvement of sensitivity based on progress in high-throughput sequencing technology.     

The additive dose method for dose estimation in irradiated oregano by thermoluminescence technique

The ionizing radiation treatment of food is nowadays a worldwide recognized tool for food preservation, provided that proper and validated identification methods are available and used. The thermoluminescence (TL) technique is one of the physical methods recommended by the European Committee for Standardization to distinguish irradiated from not irradiated samples, for food containing silicate minerals as contaminants, such as spices and aromatic herbs, which are among the most frequently irradiated foods. The experimental results presented in this work show that, at least up to the highest tested doses (2 kGy), it is possible to set up a procedure to estimate the actual dose in the irradiated product, using TL and the additive dose method, even after months of storage.     

Effective sampling strategy to detect food and feed contamination: Herbs and spices case

Sampling plans for food safety hazards are aimed to be used to determine whether a lot of food is contaminated (with microbiological or chemical hazards) or not. One of the components of sampling plans is the sampling strategy. The aim of this study was to compare the performance of three different sampling strategies, being simple random sampling (SRS), stratified random sampling (STRS), and systematic sampling (SS), with each other for their probability of detecting a heterogeneously distributed contamination in a lot of herbs or spices (i.e., a dry food product). To this end, a simulation model was developed, and applied to different scenarios for contamination level and numbers of samples collected. In addition, as a case study, the sampling plan of a company processing herbs and spices was evaluated using the simulation model. Results showed that the effectiveness of the sampling plan is influenced by the sampling strategy. With expected low contamination levels the SS strategy performs better than the two other strategies. At higher expected contaminated levels, the STRS strategy is preferred.     

The analysis of food safety incidents in South Korea, 1998–2016

This study uses media reports to analyze food safety incidents in South Korea that occurred between January 1998 and March 2016. The total number of incidents during this period was 975, with an average of 51.3 per year and 4.3 per month. The top five types of food involved were fruits and vegetables, fish and fish products, meat and meat products, beverages, and confectionery. Of the 975 incidents, 406 (41.6%) were related to chemical hazards—such as food additives and pesticides—221 (22.7%) were due to biological hazards, and 199 (20.4%) were due to physical hazards. Through analysis, this study determines at what stage a breakdown in food safety is likely to occur: primary production is the most common stage with 615 (63.1%) incidents, followed by incidents during the handling and distribution stages, at 240 (24.6%) and 65 (6.7%), respectively. The results of this study can be used as data for risk analysis or food safety strategies.     

Food quality management system: Reviewing assessment strategies and a feasibility study for European food small and medium-sized enterprises

Literature indicates a need for a user-friendly food quality management system (FQMS) customized to the requirements of food small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) for improving product and process quality and enhancing customer satisfaction. Application of quality management system within discreet and process industries is evident. However, there are limited studies that focused on the implementation of a quality management system (QMS) among SMEs operating in the food sector. This study explains the results of a feasibility study on FQMS among European Food SMEs. The objective of this study is to diagnose the status of the FQMS, and to find out what motivates and hinders the successful implementation of FQMS in SMEs. The findings show that none of the food SMEs involved in this study implements FQMS in its true form. The size of the company is a significant factor with respect to quality management implementation, as medium-sized companies were more mature in FQMS implementation compared to their small and micro counterparts. The confectionery, chocolate and meat sectors are more advanced than bakery, packaged fruits and vegetables sectors, with respect to the implementation of quality management tools and techniques. The study revealed that the most important benefits of a quality management system were reduction in cost of production and increased productivity. The key barrier to implementation of FQMS was “lack of knowledge and training” among food SMEs.     

Application of Bayesian Networks in the development of herbs and spices sampling monitoring system

Knowing which products and hazards to monitor along the food supply chain is crucial for ensuring food safety. In this study, we developed a model to predict which types of herbs and spices products and food safety hazards should preferentially be monitored at each level of the supply chain (suppliers, border inspection points, market and consumers). A Bayesian Network method was used to develop a model based on notifications reported in the Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed and the database of the Dutch national monitoring program for chemical contaminants in food and feed over the period 2005–2014. The model was constructed by randomly selecting ca. 80% of the 3126 data records and validated using the remaining ca. 20% of the records. Model validation showed that the prediction accuracy was higher than 85%. Results showed that the sampling plan is closely related to the place where the products are checked along the supply chain, the products and the country of origin. Our approach of integrating different data sources and considering the entire supply chain can support industry and authorities at border inspection points and at all control points along the herbs and spices supply chain in setting priorities for their monitoring program.