Interactions between engineered nanoparticles (ENPs) and plants: Phytotoxicity, uptake and accumulation

The rapid development and potential release of engineered nanoparticles (ENPs) have raised considerable concerns due to the unique properties of nanomaterials. An important aspect of the risk assessment of ENPs is to understand the interactions of ENPs with plants, an essential base component of all ecosystems. The impact of ENPs on plant varies, depending on the composition, concentration, size and other important physical chemical properties of ENPs and plant species. Both enhancive and inhibitive effects of ENPs on plant growth at different developmental stages have been documented. ENPs could be potentially taken up by plant roots and transported to shoots through vascular systems depending upon the composition, shape, size of ENPs and plant anatomy. Despite the insights gained through many previous studies, many questions remain concerning the fate and behavior of ENPs in plant systems such as the role of surface area or surface activity of ENPs on phytotoxicity, the potential route of entrance to plant vascular tissues and the role of plant cell walls in internalization of ENPs. This article reviewed the current knowledge on the phytotoxicity and interactions of ENPs with plants at seedling and cellular levels and discussed the information gap and some immediate research needs to further our knowledge on this topic.     

Vegetation uptake of nitrogen and base cations in China and its role in soil acidification

Vegetation uptake of nitrogen and base cations may be an important source of soil acidity. In this study, the uptake rate of nitrogen and base cations was estimated for each major vegetation type in China. Although the uptake rates of most vegetation types are lower than 2.0 keq ha(-1) a(-1), great variations exist because of the significant differences in net primary productivity and elemental composition. Uptake rates decreased gradually from southeast to northwest, except for the wide-distributed agricultural areas in the east of China, where the nitrogen and base cation uptake rates are near zero. It is evident that this pattern coincides well with the distribution of the annual mean precipitation. However, the geographical distribution of the base cation uptake rate is not entirely the same as that of nitrogen, which indicates the importance of soil conditions in determining the chemical component and hence the uptake rate of different vegetation. The acidity input caused by vegetation uptake is quite high (>0.5 keq ha(-1) a(-1)), and even higher than the current acid deposition and the alkalinity produced by soil weathering in some areas, which indicates that the growth of the plants may contribute significantly to the soil acidification problem in China.     

Toxicity of 2,4-dinitrotoluene to terrestrial plants in natural soils

The presence of energetic materials (used as explosives and propellants) at contaminated sites is a growing international issue, particularly with respect to military base closures and demilitarization policies. Improved understanding of the ecotoxicological effects of these materials is needed in order to accurately assess the potential exposure risks and impacts on the environment and its ecosystems. We studied the toxicity of the nitroaromatic energetic material 2,4-dinitrotoluene (2,4-DNT) on alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.), barnyard grass (Echinochloa crusgalli L. Beauv.), and perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) using four natural soils varying in properties (organic matter, clay content, and pH) that were hypothesized to affect chemical bioavailability and toxicity. Amended soils were subjected to natural light conditions, and wetting and drying cycles in a greenhouse for 13 weeks prior to toxicity testing to approximate field exposure conditions in terms of bioavailability, transformation, and degradation of 2,4-DNT. Definitive toxicity tests were performed according to standard protocols. The median effective concentration (EC₅₀) values for shoot dry mass ranged from 8 to 229 mg kg^− 1, depending on the plant species and soil type. Data indicated that 2,4-DNT was most toxic in the Sassafras (SSL) and Teller (TSL) sandy loam soils, with EC₅₀ values for shoot dry mass ranging between 8 to 44 mg kg^− 1, and least toxic in the Webster clay loam soil, with EC₅₀ values for shoot dry mass ranging between 40 to 229 mg kg^− 1. The toxicity of 2,4-DNT for each of the plant species was significantly (p ≤ 0.05) and inversely correlated with the soil organic matter content. Toxicity benchmark values determined in the present studies for 2,4-DNT weathered-and-aged in SSL or TSL soils will contribute to development of an Ecological Soil Screening Level for terrestrial plants that can be used for ecological risk assessment at contaminated sites.     

Effect of industrial pollution on the distribution of 137Cs in soil and the soil-to-plant transfer in a pine forest in SW Finland

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of industrial pollution on the distribution of radiocaesium in soil and on its transfer from soil to plants. The study was started in September 2000 in four Scots pine stands located at distances of 0.5, 2, 4 and 8 km along a transect running SE from the Cu-Ni smelter at Harjavalta in SW Finland. Annual emissions from the smelter in 1990 were 80 t of Cu, 31 t of Ni and 9000 t of SO(2), and in 1999 these were 5.9, 0.8 and 3400 t, respectively. At each site, soil profiles were sampled with a corer, and samples were separated into litter (L), organic soil layer (O) and mineral soil layers (B, E). Mushrooms, lichens (Cladina spp. and Cetraria islandica), lingonberry (Vaccinium vitis-idaea) and crowberry (Empetrum nigrum) plants were collected at each site, except at a distance of 0.5 km, where only mushrooms were available. In the organic soil layer, 137Cs activity decreased from 8000 Bq/m(2) at a distance of 8 km from the smelter to 1500 Bq/m(2) at a distance of 0.5 km; in litter, 137Cs concentration increased from 6300 Bq/m(2) at 8 km to 14000 Bq/m(2) at 0.5 km. 137Cs activity concentration decreased significantly in plants, mushrooms and lichens as the pollution load increased. In lichens, 137Cs activity decreased from 910 Bq/kg at 8 km to 170 Bq/kg at 2 km, while in lingonberry it decreased from 1470 to 20 Bq/kg and in crowberry from 310 to 20 Bq/kg. Aggregated transfer factors for 137Cs decreased in a similar way in lingonberry from 7.6x10(-2) m(2)/kg at 8 km to 7.7x10(-4) m(2)/kg at 2 km and in crowberry from 1.6x10(-2) to 7.9x10(-4) m(2)/kg.     

Evaluation of liquefaction strength of Japanese natural sandy soil using triaxial and simple shear tests

The aim of this note is to reexamine the stress and strain conditions of cyclic triaxial and cyclic simple shear tests for evaluating the liquefaction strength of natural sandy soil. The conventional method of determining the liquefaction strength relies on the shear stress components. However, the use of stress invariants eliminates the need to specify the stress components, thereby making it a more rational approach for determining the liquefaction strength. A comparison of the results using the conventional stress ratio and the stress invariant ratio is done in this study. A strong correlation is seen between the liquefaction strengths obtained from the triaxial and the simple shear tests when using the stress invariant ratio. Despite this strong correlation, large scattering still remains due to the effects of the soil fabric of the natural sandy soil. A torsional hollow cylindrical device is used here to perform simple shear tests on undisturbed natural sandy soil.     

Comparative study of EICP treatment methods on the mechanical properties of sandy soil

This study analyzed the effect of different treatment methods in enzyme-induced carbonate precipitation (EICP) on the mechanical properties of soil. Soybean crude urease was used to catalyze the precipitation of calcium carbonate (CaCO₃). A multiple-phase method was proposed and further compared with commonly practiced EICP treatment methods (including the one-phase method, two-phase method, and premix-and-compact method) from the aspects of chemical conversion efficiency, CaCO₃ precipitation distribution, permeability, and unconfined compressive strength. Based on the findings, the characteristics of each method were further discussed and summarized. Although the enzymatic CaCO₃ precipitation generated from all the treatment methods could potentiate the soil strength to a great or less degree, using the proposed multiple-phase method could bring about a high chemical conversion efficiency, uniform distribution of CaCO₃ as well as preferable permeability retention. In addition, the multiple-phase method could significantly improve the efficiency of urease usage.     

NTA biodegradation and removal in subsurface sandy soil

This lab-scale study examined the biodegradation and removal of nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA) in the subsurface environment, mainly sandy soils. Batch tests indicated that NTA adsorption on the sandy soils played a minor role in its removal in these soils. Removal of NTA was investigated in 50.5 mm i.d. by 1.17 m long soil columns under unsaturated conditions at 15°C. Septic tank effluent containing 20 mg NTA l⁻¹ was dosed to soil columns four times a day at an overall loading rate of 1 gpd ft⁻² for a 43-day period. This feed NTA concentration was routinely reduced to a steady-state concentration of 0.1 mg l⁻¹ by passage through the 1.17 m of soil, after an indigenous soil microflora became sufficiently established over a 25 day period. In addition, the results of samples taken on day 21 demonstrated that greater than 75% removal of NTA can be expected in a soil depth of less than one-third meter.     

Predicting soil quality indices with near infrared analysis in a wildfire chronosequence

We investigated the power of near infrared (NIR) analysis for the quantitative assessment of soil quality in a wildfire chronosequence. The effect of wildfire disturbance and soil engineering activity of earthworms on soil organic matter quality was first assessed with principal component analysis of NIR spectra. Three soil quality indices were further calculated using an adaptation of the method proposed by Velasquez et al. [Velasquez, E., Lavelle, P., Andrade, M. GISQ, a multifunctional indicator of soil quality. Soil Biol Biochem 2007; 39: 3066-3080.], each one addressing an ecosystem service provided by soils: organic matter storage, nutrient supply and biological activity. Partial least squares regression models were developed to test the predicting ability of NIR analysis for these soil quality indices. All models reached coefficients of determination above 0.90 and ratios of performance to deviation above 2.8. This finding provides new opportunities for the monitoring of soil quality, using NIR scanning of soil samples.     

含水岩土体系电化学传质动力学耦合关系研究

在固液界面扩散双电层理论的基础上 ,利用毛管电化学传质动力学理论 ,导出了含水岩土体系电化学传质动力学理论模型 ,建立了反映渗流场、电流场和离子流场三种场之间耦合关系的关系式。     

砂土渗流过程的细观数值模拟

基于散体介质理论,利用PFC2D内置FISH语言定义的流固之间的作用力方程和压力梯度方程,求解不可压缩流体中两相介质的连续方程和Navier-Stoke方程。并尝试用该理论模拟不同水压下渗流引起砂土特性变化的全过程,数值试验得到了流速、渗透系数、孔隙率和砂的流失量等参量的定性变化规律,表明水土相互作用贯穿于渗流的全过程。模拟结果与试验结果相符,且流速与压力梯度满足达西定律,表明应用该理论来模拟复杂的水土相互作用是可行的,它具有一定的理论意义,为进一步研究多孔介质中考虑流固耦合的渗透破坏研究如流土、管涌等奠定了一定的理论基础。     

Temporal and small-scale spatial variability of Rn gas in a soil with a high gravel content

To quantify the small-scale spatial and long-term temporal variability of the ²²²Rn concentration in a typical soil with a high gravel content, we monitored this radionuclide every week for 1 year, at 0.5 m and 1.0 m depth at nine sampling positions in a 20×20-m field, and at the four corners of a 1×1-m plot within this field. The data show that the ²²²Rn soil gas concentrations exhibited a spatial variability which is characterised in the 20×20-m field by coefficients of variation from 20 to 30% at 0.5 m depth, and from 15 to 20% at 1.0 m depth. Within the 1×1-m plot, these values were at both depths only 5–10%. In the winter months, the ²²²Rn soil gas concentration was higher at 0.5 m depth compared to that at 1.0 m depth. However, in the summer months, the opposite behavior was observed. Time series analysis of the data showed that the ²²²Rn concentrations in the soil gas determined at a given position and depth is strongly correlated with the preceding observation at this point. In addition, strong cross-correlations are present between the ²²²Rn concentration time series observed at different positions and depths. The above results are used to calculate the probability for estimating, within a given deviation, the annual mean ²²²Rn soil gas concentration from a single measurement on an arbitrary day of a given month at a limited number of sampling positions only. Because the ²²²Rn concentration in the soil gas can vary considerably even within 1 month, ²²²Rn measurement obtained only once in a given month (especially in January and February) cannot be used to obtain a good estimate of the mean annual radon concentration, even if a large number of samples in the field are taken.     

Modeling heavy metal uptake by sludge particulates in the presence of dissolved organic matter

The uptake of the seven heavy metal ions Cd(II), Co(II), Cr(III), Cu(II), Ni(II), Pb(II), and Zn(II) by sludge particulates in single-metal systems was investigated. Results showed that under acidic and neutral pH conditions, the uptake of all heavy metals by sludge particulates increases with the increase of pH. However, in the alkaline pH region, the uptake of Cu(II), Ni(II), and Co(II) decreases with the increase of pH, primarily due to the high dissolved organic matter (DOM) concentration in high pH conditions. Based on chemical reactions among heavy metal, sludge solids, and DOM, a mathematical model describing metal uptake as functions of DOM and pH was developed. The stability constants of metal–sludge and metal–DOM complexes can be determined using this model in conjunction with experimental metal uptake data. Results showed that, for the secondary sludge sample collected from Baltimore Back River Wastewater Treatment plant on March 1997, the stability constants of Cu(II)–sludge complex (log K_S) and Cu(II)–DOM complex (log K_L) are 5.3±0.2 and 4.7±0.3, respectively; for Ni(II), they are 4.0±0.2 and 3.9±0.2, respectively. Results also showed that under neutral and low pH conditions (pH<8), the DOM effects on metal uptake for all heavy metals are insignificant. Therefore, the DOM term in the model can be ignored. Results showed that, for the secondary sludge sample collected from Baltimore Back River Wastewater Treatment plant on December 1996, the estimated log K_S values of metal–sludge complexes for Cd(II), Co(II), Cr(III), Cu(II), Ni(II), Pb(II), and Zn(II) are, respectively, 3.6±0.2, 3.0±0.1, 5.5±0.1, 4.8±0.1, 3.1±0.1, 5.1±0.1, and 4.4±0.3.     

砂石桩法处理杂填土与黏性土地基的比较

指出砂石桩法是地基处理中常用的方法之一,以其经济、易施工而被广泛采用,对砂石桩法在杂填土和黏性土地基中的应用进行比较,分别从设计、施工、检验等方面进行对比、探讨、总结,以使砂石桩方法更有效地应用于这两种地基处理中。     

PHC桩在砂性地基中压桩力的确定

通过工程试验 ,提出高强预应力混凝土管桩在砂性地基中静力压桩压桩力 ,并分析产生断桩的原因。     

压实风积沙土层盐分迁移规律研究

针对沙漠地区风积沙路基发生盐渍化病害现象,探究压实风积沙土层水、热、盐变化规律。自制下垫面为硫酸钠盐渍土地基的风积沙土柱试验设备,以自然环境条件下6个月(6月—12月)的实时监测数据为基础,分析压实风积沙土层内水、热、盐的时空分布规律与迁移特征。研究结果表明:受外界环境温度影响,压实风积沙土层分影响剧烈区(0～50cm)与薄弱区(50～120cm),随着埋深增加,土柱内部温度变化幅度趋于平缓,各层温度到达峰值具有滞后效应;受含盐下垫面与压实素土风积沙含盐量的浓度梯度作用,压实风积沙土层深部区域被盐分迁入,由无到有。风积沙土层内盐分的存在,为盐分的进一步迁移奠定了物源基础。由外界温度影响,土层浅部受水分赋存形态的变化与蒸发牵引作用,促使水分携带盐分在压实风积沙土层内部逐渐向上发生迁移;盐分在土层整个埋深断面上呈现"高—低—高"的分布特征。受外界环境荷载周而复始作用,压实风积沙土层浅部盐分将渐渐积聚,由少到多,随着时间推移将形成盐渍化病害。     

松散砂土中成CFG桩和水泥土桩质量优化

针对CFG桩和夯实水泥土桩在松散砂土中成桩常出现塌孔、断桩的问题,通过改进施工机械和施工技术手段,优化了在松散砂土中成CFG桩和水泥土桩的成桩质量,进而优化了工程施工质量。     

碎石桩在砂土液化地基中的应用

结合具体的工程概况，介绍了在砂层地基中采用振冲碎石桩消除砂土液化的施工原理，以及具体的施工方法，并提出应注意的问题，经实践证明，其可行性与经济性效果显著。     

盾构在砂性土层中的施工措施

根据上海市地铁二号线(R2线)西延伸工程Ⅵ标地质概况,并针对砂质黏土进行盾构施工易产生管涌或流砂的现象,提出了盾构施工应采取的技术措施,从而避免开挖面失稳、地表及地表结构变形等问题,为类似工程提供借鉴。     

四川地区砂卵石土动强度试验分析

基于GBS LABV2动态三轴仪的砂卵石土的固结不排水振动三轴试验,对试验过程及试验成果进行了分析。初步探讨了围压及饱和度对砂卵石土试样动强度及液化特性的影响,以及孔压变化的规律,对其中的问题提出了几点浅显的认识。     

Mass balance and distribution of sludge-borne trace elements in a silt loam soil following long-term applications of sewage sludge

Soil samples were collected at 15-cm increments to a depth of 75 cm from plots on a silt loam soil where until several years earlier and for 14 years, anaerobically digested sewage sludge had been annually applied by furrow irrigation. The study protocol consisted of four replications of 6.1 x 12.2-m plots with 0 (T0), 1/4-maximum (T1), 1/2-maximum (T2) and maximum (T3) sludge application rates randomized within blocks. When sludge applications were terminated, maximum sludge-treated plots had received 765 Mg ha-1 (dry weight equivalent) of sludge solids. Total soil concentrations of Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn had been significantly enhanced by all sludge application rates to a soil depth of 30 cm. Below the 30-cm depth, total soil Cd was increased to 75 cm, total Zn to 45 cm (T2 and T3 only), total Cr to 60 cm (T2 and T3 only), but total Cu, Pb, and Ni were not increased at depth. Despite the lack of significant increases in subsoil concentrations for some metals, mass balance calculations showed a relatively high proportion of all the above sludge-borne heavy metals to be unaccounted for in the soil profile for each application rate. Mass balance calculations of losses ranged from a high of 60% for Ni to a low of 36% for Cu and Pb. Similar losses were calculated from metal concentrations measured in soil samples taken at the time the sludge was applied. In soil surface samples (0-15 cm) from maximum sludge-treated plots, percentages of total metal concentration extracted with 4.0 M HNO3 ranged from a low of 31 for Zn to a high of 75 for Cu. Efficiency of metal extraction by HNO3 was inconsistent, depending on the soil horizon and sludge treatment, so that evaluation of HNO3-extractable metals is not a reliable method of estimating total metal retention in the profiles. In soil surface samples from maximum sludge-treated plots, the percentage of total metal contents extracted with DTPA ranged from a low of 0.03 for Cr to a high of 59 for Cd. The DTPA extractable levels of Cu, Ni, and Pb were higher in the subsoils of the sludge-treated soils, indicating that these metals had been redistributed from the surface layer to deeper zones in the profile of sludge-amended soil, despite the absence of elevated total concentrations of these three metals in the deeper subsoil.