On-machine measurement of microtool wear and cutting edge chipping by using a diamond edge artifact

This paper presents precision on-machine measurement of microwear and microcutting edge chipping of the diamond tool used in a force sensor integrated fast tool servo (FS-FTS) mounted on a three-axis diamond turning machine. A diamond edge artifact with a nanometric sharpness is mounted on the machine spindle with its axis of rotation along the Z-axis to serve as a reference edge artifact. The diamond tool is placed in the tool holder of the FS-FTS to generate cutting motion along the Z-axis. By moving the X-slide on which the FS-FTS is mounted, the reference edge can be scanned by the diamond tool. During the scanning, the Z-directional position of the tool is closed-loop controlled by the FS-FTS in such a way that the contact force between the tool tip and the reference edge is kept constant based on the force sensor output of the FS-FTS. The tool edge contour can be obtained from the scan trace of the tool tip, whose X- and Z-directional coordinates are provided by the output of the linear encoder of the X-slide and that of the displacement sensor in the FS-FTS, respectively. Since the reference edge artifact has a good hardness and a nanometric sharpness to ensure the lateral resolution of measurement, a microwear on the cutting edge of the diamond tool can be indentified from the measured tool edge contour. Experiments of on-machine measurement of tool edge contour and microtool wear are carried out to demonstrate the feasibility of the proposed system.     

切点约束和探针针尖半径补偿的金刚石刀具刃口钝圆半径求解方法

本文对金刚石刀具刃口钝圆半径求解方法展开研究,以有效提升金刚石刀具刃口锋利度的测量精度。文中分析了原子力显微镜(AFM)扫描探针几何形貌对金刚石刀具刃口锋利度测量结果的影响,并提出了基于切点约束和AFM探针针尖半径补偿的刀具刃口钝圆半径求解方法;讨论了消噪滤波、测量角度误差以及切点分离方法对测量结果的影响;在高精度测量平台上完成了金刚石刀具刃口锋利度测量,并将被测量的刀具用于飞切加工KDP晶体。结果表明:提出的刃口钝圆半径求解方法能够准确求解金刚石刀具的刃口锋利度,测量结果能很好地描述金刚石刀具的刃口锋利程度,可以为金刚石超精密切削加工的选刀和用刀提供有效指导。     

An integrated method for measurement of diamond tools based on AFM

The measurement and evaluation technology of high precision diamond tools is critically important for supporting the ultra-precision machining. In practical cutting process, the edge profile quality of the diamond tool, including sharpness, micro defects, roughness and tip arc waviness, greatly affects the cutting quality. It is very difficult to measure and evaluate the diamond tool edge profile due to the high precision of tool edge profile and complexity of various measurement parameters. In this paper, an integrated method for measurement and characterization of diamond tools is proposed, which is based on an Atomic Force Microscope (AFM) module. Multiple technical indexes of diamond tools are obtained and validated based on the presented research and cutting experiments, and the evaluation model for each technical index is also proposed. The integrated measurement equipment, including an AFM, precision adjustment device and aerostatic bearings, has been established based on the accuracy requirement of measurement parameters. The edge sharpness, micro defects, surface roughness and tip arc waviness have been obtained based on the evaluation model and experimental data. The experimental results show that the measurement accuracy meets the requirements of the comprehensive evaluation of the diamond tool edge profile. The research work will also contribute to the development of ultra-precision machine.     

Effects of cutting edge geometry, workpiece hardness, feed rate and cutting speed on surface roughness and forces in finish turning of hardened AISI H13 steel

In this study, the effects of cutting edge geometry, workpiece hardness, feed rate and cutting speed on surface roughness and resultant forces in the finish hard turning of AISI H13 steel were experimentally investigated. Cubic boron nitrite inserts with two distinct edge preparations and through-hardened AISI H13 steel bars were used. Four-factor (hardness, edge geometry, feed rate and cutting speed) two-level fractional experiments were conducted and statistical analysis of variance was performed. During hard turning experiments, three components of tool forces and roughness of the machined surface were measured. This study shows that the effects of workpiece hardness, cutting edge geometry, feed rate and cutting speed on surface roughness are statistically significant. The effects of two-factor interactions of the edge geometry and the workpiece hardness, the edge geometry and the feed rate, and the cutting speed and feed rate also appeared to be important. Especially honed edge geometry and lower workpiece surface hardness resulted in better surface roughness. Cutting-edge geometry, workpiece hardness and cutting speed are found to be affecting force components. The lower workpiece surface hardness and honed edge geometry resulted in lower tangential and radial forces.     

Elliptical vibration cutting of hardened die steel with coated carbide tools

Elliptical vibration cutting of hardened die steel with coated carbide tools is examined in this research in order to achieve low-cost high-precision machining. Diamond coated tools are applied because of superior hardness of their polycrystalline diamond coating and its low manufacturing cost. TiN coated tools are also tested, since they are widely used for conventional machining of steels. Machinability of hardened die steel by the elliptical vibration cutting with coated carbide tools is discussed in three aspects in this study, i.e. transferability of cutting edge profile to cut surface, cutting force, and tool life. The transferability is evaluated quantitatively by calculating correlation coefficients of measured roughness profiles. It is clarified that the diamond coated tools have high transferability which leads to diffraction of light on the surface machined at micro-scale pick feed. Total cutting forces including ploughing components are measured at various feed rates, and then shearing components and ploughing components are separated utilizing linear regression. The measured results indicate, for example, that the all forces become considerably smaller only when elliptical vibration is applied to the TiN coated tool without cutting fluid. It is also found that this considerable reduction of forces interestingly corresponds to higher friction coefficient, which is identified from the ploughing components. Tool life tests are carried out by various machining methods, i.e. elliptical vibration/ordinary wet/dry cutting with diamond/TiN coated tools. The result shows, for example, that the flank wear is smallest in the wet elliptical vibration cutting with the diamond coated tool.     

PCBN刀具断续切削磨损机理的研究

研究了BN250断续车削淬火钢SAE8822十字轴的磨损现象。试验结果显示微崩刃是断续车削中导致刀具失效的主要因素,工件与BN250刀具元素之间的化学反应和扩散作用削弱了结合剂与CBN基体直接的结合强度,是导致刀具破损发生的主要因素。     

Surface layer microhardness changes with high-speed turning of hardened steels

In high-speed cutting of hardened steels, the surface layer is strongly affected by thermal effects and mechanical forces. Due to this, the surface layer of the machined material changes noticeably. Microhardness, one parameter of the surface integrity, is the most important. This paper deals with an investigation of microhardness. Measuring results are presented, and reasons for the sometimes significant changes in microhardness are analysed. It is proved on which part of the cutting edge the material removal will not take place but the cutting edge deforms the material plastically and how this part of the cutting edge can be reduced. With the measurement of the cutting force, the hypothesis is proved that the values of the cutting force components related to each other are different compared to the traditional turning. The passive force is 1.88?C2.25 times higher than the main cutting force. Hence, the force taking place on the flank face of the cutting tool is very high and the friction power significantly influences the cutting temperature. The friction taking place on the flank face of the cutting tool generates 2.8?C3.9 times higher heat than the cutting force. Due to the changes that occur in the surface layer, the hardness of this layer is higher with 100?C150?HV in depth of 0.1?mm than the original hardness or the hardness prescribed in the technical drawings. This phenomenon can be observed not only in internal hard turning but also machining of external and conical surfaces. Microhardness is compared after hard turning and after grinding. According to the measurements, the ground surface has not become a harder surface layer but softer. As an average result of many measurements, it has been proven that the original hardness (700?HV) after case hardening will increase to 800?C850?HV after hard turning and will decrease to 500?C550?HV after grinding. Microhardness changes are analysed considering the typical chip removal characteristics of hard turning. In this article, the focus is on how changes in microhardness influence the functional behaviour of the components and may affect their lifetimes. In this article, it has been proven that independently from the surface of the machined gear (bore, conical or face surface) the changes in the surface layer regarding microhardness do not differ.     

Effect of work material hardness and cutting parameters on performance of coated carbide tool when turning hardened steel: An optimization approach

In present work performance of coated carbide tool was investigated considering the effect of work material hardness and cutting parameters during turning of hardened AISI 4340 steel at different levels of hardness. The correlations between the cutting parameters and performance measures like cutting forces, surface roughness and tool life, were established by multiple linear regression models. The correlation coefficients found close to 0.9, showed that the developed models are reliable and could be used effectively for predicting the responses within the domain of the cutting parameters. Highly significant parameters were determined by performing an Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). Experimental observations show that higher cutting forces are required for machining harder work material. These cutting forces get affected mostly by depth of cut followed by feed. Cutting speed, feed and depth of cut having an interaction effect on surface roughness. Cutting speed followed by depth of cut become the most influencing factors on tool life; especially in case of harder workpiece. Optimum cutting conditions are determined using response surface methodology (RSM) and the desirability function approach. It was found that, the use of lower feed value, lower depth of cut and by limiting the cutting speed to 235 and 144 m/min; while turning 35 and 45 HRC work material, respectively, ensures minimum cutting forces, surface roughness and better tool life.     

Cutting forces,tool wear and surface finish in high speed diamond machining

We have investigated the cutting forces, the tool wear and the surface finish obtained in high speed diamond turning and milling of OFHC copper, brass CuZn39Pb3, aluminum AlMg5, and electroless nickel. In face turning experiments with constant material removal rate the cutting forces were recorded as a function of cutting speed between v_c = 150 m/min and 4500 m/min revealing a transition to adiabatic shearing which is supported by FEM simulations of the cutting process. Fly-cutting experiments carried out at low (v_c = 380 m/min) and at high cutting speed (v_c = 3800 m/min) showed that the rate of abrasive wear of the cutting edge is significantly higher at ordinary cutting speed than at high cutting speed in contrast to the experience made in conventional machining. Furthermore, it was found that the rate of chemically induced tool wear in diamond milling of steel is decreasing with decreasing tool engagement time per revolution. High speed diamond machining may also yield an improved surface roughness which was confirmed by comparing the step heights at grain boundaries obtained in diamond milling of OFHC copper and brass CuZn39Pb3 at low (v_c = 100 m/min) and high cutting speed (v_c = 2000 m/min). Thus, high speed diamond machining offers several advantages, let alone a major reduction of machining time.     

3D characterisation of tool wear whilst diamond turning silicon

Nanometrically smooth infrared silicon optics can be manufactured by the diamond turning process. Due to its relatively low density, silicon is an ideal optical material for weight sensitive infrared (IR) applications. However, rapid diamond tool edge degradation and the effect on the achieved surface have prevented significant exploitation. With the aim of developing a process model to optimise the diamond turning of silicon optics, a series of experimental trials were devised using two ultra-precision diamond turning machines. Single crystal silicon specimens (1 1 1) were repeatedly machined using diamond tools of the same specification until the onset of surface brittle fracture. Two cutting fluids were tested. The cutting forces were monitored and the wear morphology of the tool edge was studied by scanning electron microscopy (SEM).The most significant result showed the performance of one particular tool was consistently superior when compared with other diamond tools of the same specification. This remarkable tool performance resulted in doubling the cutting distance exhibited by the other diamond tools. Another significant result was associated with coolant type. In all cases, tool life was prolonged by as much as 300% by using a specific fluid type.Further testing led to the development of a novel method for assessing the progression of diamond tool wear. In this technique, the diamond tools gradual recession profile is measured by performing a series of plunging cuts. Tool shape changes used in conjunction with flank wear SEM measurements enable the calculation of the volumetric tool wear rate.     

粗粒度人造多晶金刚石用作超精切削加工刀具材料的可能性

用粗粒度的人造多晶金刚石刀具进行车削试验．从理论和实验两方面对此种刀具切削形成超精密加工表面的机理进行了研究，提出了＂微量切削过程中．人造多晶金刚石刀具多点切削、单点成形＂的观点。在与天然单晶金刚石刀具的切削试验结果以及天然单晶金刚石刀具超精切削加工生产条件进行对比之后，验证了粗粒度人造多晶金刚石用作超精切削加工刀具材料的可能性。     

TOOL FORCE MODEL FOR DIAMOND TURNING

A new tool force model to be presented is based upon process geometry and the characteristics of the force system, in which the forces acting on the tool rake face, the cutting edge rounding and the clearance face have been considered, and the size effect is accountable for the new model. It is desired that the model can be well applicable to conventional diamond turning and the model may be employed as a tool in the design of diamond tools. This approach is quite different from traditional investigations primarily based on empirical studies. As the depth of cut becomes the same order as the rounded cutting edge radius, sliding along the clearance face due to elastic recovery of workpiece material and plowing due to the rounded cutting edge may become important in micro-machining, the forces acting on the cutting edge rounding and the clearance face can not be neglected. For this reason, it is very important to understand the influence of some parameters on tool forces and develop a model of the relatio     

Suppression of tool damage in ultraprecision diamond machining of stainless steel by applying electron-beam-excited plasma nitriding

Mirror surface machining of stainless steel with single-crystalline diamond tools is proposed in this study by applying a new nitriding method, called electron-beam-excited-plasma (EBEP) nitriding, to workpiece surfaces as pretreatment. It is well known that mirror surface finish of steel workpieces by conventional diamond cutting is unachievable owing to rapid tool wear. Nitriding of steel workpieces has been one of the several attempts to prevent the rapid tool wear of diamond tools. It has been reported that the rapid tool wear is caused by thermochemical interaction between diamond and steel, and that the wear can be greatly reduced by nitriding of steel. However, hard compounds formed on the outmost surfaces of workpieces by the conventional nitriding methods can cause micro-chippings of cutting tools. The authors has recently developed a new nitriding method called EBEP nitriding, in which a high dissociation rate for nitrogen molecules is achieved using the electron-beam-excited-plasma, and iron-compounds-free nitriding has been realized. Therefore, the EBEP nitriding is applied to a typical mold material, modified AISI 420 stainless steel, aiming at suppressing the micro-chippings as well as the thermochemical tool wear during diamond cutting of the stainless steel. The conventional ion nitriding and the gas nitrocarburizing are also applied to the same stainless steel in comparison. Chemical components of the nitrided workpiece surfaces are analyzed by an electron prove micro-analyzer (EPMA) and an X-ray diffraction (XRD) in advance, and turning experiments are conducted with single-crystalline diamond tools. Subsequently, changes in cutting forces and roughness of finished surfaces and tool damages after the turning experiments are evaluated. Finally, mirror surface machining by using the EBEP nitriding is demonstrated, and its advantages and disadvantages in the diamond cutting of stainless steel are summarized in comparison with the conventional nitriding methods.     

Machinability aspects concerning micro-turning of PA66-GF30-reinforced polyamide

This paper aims to study the behavior of machining forces and machined surface finish when micro-turning PA66-GF30-reinforced polyamide with various tool materials under distinct cutting conditions. The performance of polycrystalline diamond (PCD), CVD diamond coated carbide and plain cemented carbide tools (K15-KF and K15) were investigated in addition to the influence of feed rate on cutting forces, surface roughness and chip formation. The results indicated that the radial force was the highest force component because of the reduction in the effective cutting edge angle. Moreover, the cutting force increased almost linearly with feed, whereas the feed and radial forces remained unaltered. The cutting tools possessing lower edge radius promoted lower surface finish and turning forces, i.e., the best results were provided by the PCD tool, followed by the uncoated carbide inserts and finally by the CVD diamond-coated carbide tool.     

Performance of Uncoated and Coated Carbide Tools in the Ultra-Precision Machining of Stainless Steel

Ultra-precision machines are widely used to turn aspherical or spherical profiles on mould inserts for the injection moulding of optical lenses. During the turning of a profile on a stainless steel mould insert, the cutting speed reduces significantly to 0 as the cutting tool is fed towards the centre of the machined profile. This paper reports experiments carried out to study the wear of uncoated and PVD-coated carbide tools (carbide tool coated with 2000 alternate layers of AlN and TiN, each layer 1.5 nm and carbide tool coated with 0.5 m TiN, 5.5 m TiCN and 0.5 m TiN) in the ultra-precision machining of STAVAX (modified AISI 420 stainless steel) at low speeds with and without lubricant. A sprayed mixture of compressed air, liquid paraffin oil and cyclomethicone was used as lubricant. Examination of the wear at the rake face of the tool suggests that during machining of the alloy with a hardness of 55 HRC without lubricant, the cutting edge is subjected to high compressive stress, resulting in fracture. Reducing the hardness of the alloy would therefore result in a lower stress acting on the cutting edge, thus rendering the tool less susceptible to fracture. Both the rake and the flank faces of the coated tools exhibited lower wear than the uncoated tools. This was due to the former tools possessing higher fracture resistance owing to the presence of the coating. The lubricant was effective in improving surface finish, preventing surface fracture and reducing flank wear.     

钛合金Ti-5Al-5Mo-5V-3Cr切削力与刀具磨损的试验研究

通过对钛合金TC4、TC11和Ti-5553的切削试验,对比分析Ti-5553加工过程中切削速度对切削力和刀具磨损的影响。试验结果表明:随着切削速度增大,切削钛合金TC4和TC11的切削力呈现不同程度的先增后减趋势,而钛合金Ti-5553的切削力呈缓慢增大的趋势;在相同切削速度下,Ti-5553的主切削力和吃刀抗力均高于TC4和TC11;通过超景深、扫描电镜和能谱分析仪对刀具磨损部位进行观察与分析发现,切削Ti-5553的刀具磨损量最大,随着切削速度的增大,刀具的后刀面磨损量增加,刀具主要磨损形式为粘结磨损,刀具后刀面出现沟槽磨损,刀具出现破损。     

Tool-wear mechanisms in hard turning with polycrystalline cubic boron nitride tools

Hard turning is a turning operation performed on high strength alloy steels (45R_a0.1 μm). Extensive research being conducted on hard turning has so far addressed several fundamental questions concerning chip formation mechanisms, tool-wear, surface integrity and geometric accuracy of the machined components. The major consideration for the user of this relatively newer technology is the quality of the parts produced. A notable observation from this research is that flank wear of the cutting tool has a large impact on the quality of the machined parts (surface finish, geometric accuracy and surface integrity). For components with surface, dimensional and geometric requirements (e.g. bearing surfaces), hard turning technology is often not economical compared with grinding because tool-life is limited by the tolerances required (i.e. high flank wear rate).

The aim of this paper is to present the various modes of wear and damage of the polycrystalline cubic boron nitrides (PCBN) cutting tool under different loading conditions, in order to establish a reliable wear modeling. Flank wear has a large impact on the quality of the parts produced and the wear mechanisms have to be understood to improve the performance of the tool material, namely by reducing the flank wear rate. The wear mechanisms depend not only on the chemical composition of the PCBN, and the nature of the binder phase, but also on the hardness value and above all on the microstructure (percentage of martensite, type, size, composition of the hard phases, etc.) of the machining work material. The proposed modeling is in a generalized form of the extended Taylor’s law allowing to prediction of the tool-life as a function of the cutting parameters and of the workpiece hardness. The effects of these factors on tool-wear, tool-life and cutting forces are discussed in the paper.     

Prediction of cutting forces in mill turning through process simulation using a five-axis machining center

Mill turning is a process applied in the milling of a curved surface while the workpiece rotates around its center. Depending on the eccentricity of the tool, when a flat-end mill tool performs a curved trajectory perpendicular to the rotation axis of the tool, its bottom part is engaged in removing material. In order to optimize the process, the cutting force needs to be predicted. Hence, in this work, an approach to simulating the cutting force in mill turning is presented. The case of non-eccentricity of the tool is considered. The undeformed chip geometry is modeling as a function of the tool engagement considering the process kinematics. Experiments were conducted on a five-axis machining center enabling the measurement of the X–Y and Z components of the cutting forces. In order to verify the influence of the bottom part of the tool on the cutting forces, experiments were carried out using three different cutting depths. Numerical cutting simulations and experimental test results are compared to validate the proposed approach.     

Tool Wear in Ultra-Precision Diamond Cutting of Non-Ferrous Metals with a Round-Nose Tool

Tool wear causes the loss of the original profile accuracy of the cutting edge and degrades the form accuracy of machined surfaces. The purpose of this research is to clarify the tool-wear mechanism and its effect on machining accuracy in ultra-precision diamond cutting with a round-nose tool. Controlled cutting tests of Al 6061 were performed on a two-axis, ultra-precision turning machine. Single-crystal diamond tools were used in the experiment. The tool-wear pattern was studied based on the observation of the wear zone using a scanning electron microscope. The topographic characteristics of the chips were examined and the effect of the micro-cutting geometry on the tool wear was investigated theoretically and experimentally. The mutual effects of crystallographic dependence of wear resistance of diamonds and the change in the cutting velocity during machining are believed to be the main reasons causing uneven wear along the cutting edge. Measures for reducing the effect of tool wear are also discussed.     

Performance evaluation of PVD TIALN coated carbide tools vis-à-vis uncoated carbide tool in turning of titanium alloy (Ti-6Al-4V) by simultaneous minimization of cutting energy,dimensional deviation and tool wear

Titanium alloys are difficult-to-machine materials because of their poor machinability characteristics. Machining and machining performance evaluation for such materials is still a challenge. Individual machining performance indices like cutting forces, cutting energy and tool wear lead to ambiguous understanding. In this work, a Cumulative Performance Index (CPI) is defined which amalgamates non-dimensional forms of specific cutting energy, back force and average principal flank wear in turning. The CPI focuses upon simultaneous minimization of specific cutting energy, dimensional deviation and average principal flank wear. The defined index is then used to evaluate performance of five commercially available physical vapor deposited (PVD) TiAlN coated tungsten carbide/cobalt inserts vis-à-vis uncoated tungsten carbide/cobalt insert in turning of Ti-6Al-4V. Cutting forces were monitored during turning and tool wear was measured after turning experiments. The results showed that the performance of coated inserts was either comparable or poor than uncoated insert; and in no case, coated inserts performed better than uncoated insert. Although commercial recommendations are in place to use PVD coated inserts for enhanced machinability of titanium alloys, the use of coated inserts is not justified keeping in view the energy spent in coating and insignificant improvement in performance.