Wetting contact angles of certain systems

The wetting contact angles of a number of systems are determined experimentally. The measurements are carried out in air at temperatures of 20–70°C by a variety of methods.Translated from Inzhenerno-Fizicheskii Zhurnal, Vol. 32, No. 6, pp. 1000–1003, June, 1977.     

Instrument for measuring peripheral angles of contact

Measurement Techniques -     

四列角接触球轴承振动特性研究

基于滚动轴承动力学理论,建立了四列角接触球轴承的动力学分析模型,并以某型号四列角接触球轴承为例,对不同结构参数与工况参数下的轴承振动特性进行理论分析。结果表明:对于四列角接触球轴承,根据使用工况选择大、小球列不同的内、外沟曲率半径系数与初始接触角更有利于轴承的减振降噪;对轴承施加一定的轴向预紧量可有效减小轴承振动;存在较为合理的轴向载荷、倾覆力矩及内圈转速范围使四列角接触球轴承在使用时的振动较小。     

Hyperhydrophilic rough surfaces and imaginary contact angles

The complete wetting of rough surfaces is only poorly understood, since the underlying phenomena can neither be described by the Cassie‐Baxter nor the Wenzel equation. An experimental accessiblility by the sessile drop method is also very limited. The term “superhydrophilicity” was an attempt to understand the wetting of rough surfaces, but a clear definition is still forthcoming, mainly because non‐superhydrophilic surfaces can also display a contact angle of zero. Since the Wilhelmy balance is based on force measurements, it offers a technology for obtaining signals during the whole wetting process. We have obtained evidence that additional forces occur during the complete wetting of rough surfaces and that mathematically contact angles for a hydrophilicity beyond the contact angle of zero can be defined by imaginary numbers. A hydrophilized TPS‐surface obtained by chemical wettability switching from a superhydrophobic surface has been previously characterized by dynamic imaginary contact angles of 20i°–21i° and near‐zero hysteresis. Here an extremely high wetting rate is demonstrated reaching a virtual imaginary contact angle of Θ_V,Adv > 3.5i° in less than 210 ms. For a rough surface displaying imaginary contact angles and extremely high wetting rates we suggest the term hyperhydrophilicity. Although, as will be shown, the physical basis of imaginary contact angles is still unclear, they significantly expand our methodology, the range of wettability measurements and the tools for analyzing rough hydrophilic surfaces. They may also form the basis for a new generation of rationally constructed medicinal surfaces.     

Effects of shot-peening on surface contact angles of biomaterials

It was shown previously that (i) if the surface of a biomaterial is covered with TiO₂ (tetragonal structure oxide), it shows a high initial contact angle and a high change rate in contact angle (i.e. a higher spreading process); while (ii) cubic structure oxides show relatively lower spreading rates in 1% NaCl solution at 25°C. Shot-peening has been applied to biomaterials (especially titanium and its alloys) to improve their fatigue strength. It is well known that shot-peening causes surface roughening. The effects of surface roughness on wettability are not well documented. Therefore, in the present study, the effects of shot peening on the initial contact angle and changes in it as a function of time, were investigated. In addition, the spontaneous half-cell potential of all tested biomaterials were measured to correlate the wettability phenomenon to initial surface chemistry. Pure titanium and its alloys, including Ti-6AI-4V and NiTi alloys, AISI Type 316L stainless, Co-Cr alloy, and pure nickel, were mechanically polished, shot-peened and pre-oxidized at 300°C for 30 min in pure oxygen. It was found that (i) shot-peening homogenized the surface conditions in terms of initial contact angles, (ii) TiO₂ oxide shows a higher spreading coefficient, while cubic structure oxides show a lower value, and (iii) the spreading coefficient was correlated to the magnitude of the spontaneous half-cell potential.     

Investigation of rolling contact fatigue cracks in ball bearings

Rolling contact fatigue in a ball bearing is studied using the experimental method. Fatigue pits and spallings on the rolling surface are investigated, and the strain-hardening beneath the contact surface is studied using the microhardness profile. Moreover, surface and subsurface crack layouts and the effect of inclusions on crack nucleation are studied by optical and electron microscopy. Additionally, a simulated model is used to study the influences of the crack inclined angle and the inclusion’s hardness on fatigue damage in bearings.     

A general mathematical form and description of contact angles

A general mathematical form for contact angles on surfaces is suggested, offering fundamental new insights into describing wettability phenomena, which may be of considerable relevance to many fields of science. It was found that the Young equation – although physically well understood on ideal surfaces – is not unique, but a special case of a more general fundamental equation based on complex contact angles, comprising wettability on both ideal and non‐ideal surfaces. The novel mathematical form predicts the existence of imaginary contact angles on all non‐ideal surfaces, implying two dimensions of wettabilty and necessitating the experimental determination of real and imaginary contact angles. It could be demonstrated that the new equation can be successfully applied to experimental physical and biomedical data in the hydrophilic and hydrophobic range, with novel information gained on non‐ideality in the form of complex and imaginary contact angles.     

Surface tension and contact angles of molten cadmium telluride

The surface tension and contact angle of molten cadmium telluride (CdTe) were measured as a function of temperature by the sessile drop technique. A FORTRAN code was developed to calculate the surface tension of sessile drops, with the contact angle ranging from O to 180°. The wetting of cadmium telluride melt was studied on different surfaces. The surface tension of cadmium telluride was about 160 ±5 dynes · cm^–1[1.6 m^–1] at the melting point of 1093°C. The contact angle of CdTe melt was about 65° on a quartz optical flat, 75° on commercial fused quartz, and 125° on boron nitride coated quartz.Paper presented at the Tenth Symposium on Thermophysical Properties, June 20–23, 1988, Gaithersburg, Maryland, U.S.A.     

Solidification contact angles of molten droplets deposited on solid surfaces

Droplet impact and equilibrium contact angle have been extensively studied. However, solidification contact angle, which is the final contact angle formed by molten droplets impacting on cold surfaces, has never been a study focus. The formation of this type of contact angle was investigated by experimentally studying the deposition of micro-size droplets (∼39 μm in diameter) of molten wax ink on cold solid surfaces. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) was used to visualize dots formed by droplets impacted under various impact conditions, and parameters varied included droplet initial temperature, substrate temperature, flight distance of droplet, and type of substrate surface. It was found that the solidification contact angle was not single-valued for given droplet and substrate materials and substrate temperature, but was strongly dependent on the impact history of droplet. The angle decreased with increasing substrate and droplet temperatures. Smaller angles were formed on the surface with high wettability, and this wetting effect increased with increasing substrate temperature. Applying oil lubricant to solid surfaces could change solidification contact angle by affecting the local fluid dynamics near the contact line of spreading droplets. Assuming final shape as hemispheres did not give correct data of contact angles, since the final shape of deposited droplets significantly differs from a hemispherical shape.     

On the origin of the imaginary part of complex contact angles

Complex contact angles of water on rough surfaces have been described to consist of a real part for ideal wetting and of an imaginary part for non‐ideal wetting (Jennissen, 2011, 2014). The concept of imaginary contact angles has accordingly been successfully applied to the analysis of hyperhydrophilic rough surfaces. The origin of the imaginary part of complex contact angles has hitherto been attributed to the non‐ideality of surfaces (e.g. surface roughness) but is otherwise unclear. It is generally accepted that the Young equation is valid, if the criteria ideal surface and thermodynamic equilibrium are fulfilled. What has been overlooked is a third criterion, namely, if an ideal fluid also exists. This criterion, has never been seriously questioned, but is assumed to be fulfilled. Recent evidence indicates that this assumption is false. Xiong et al. 2014 have reported that the surface tension of water is a complex quantity consisting of a real and an imaginary part. In this paper it is demonstrated that imaginary contact angles can also originate after incorporation of a complex surface tension of water into the Young and Wilhelmy equations, thus confirming the concept of complex contact angles also from the side of the non‐ideality of the fluid.     

Surface crack growth of silicon nitride bearings under rolling contact fatigue

Surface crack growth of silicone nitride ceramic bearings under rolling contact fatigue has been investigated from the viewpoints of contact stresses (ring crack model) and fluid pressure (wedge effect model). The mechanisms of these two models have been investigated independently; however, it was impossible to separate the effects of contact stresses and fluid pressure on surface crack growth. In this paper the effects of contact stresses (ring crack model) on surface crack growth are investigated. In the ring crack model the crack growth is caused by contact stresses around the circumference of the contact circle. The growth of surface cracks located inside and outside the contact track was observed in order to obtain data from which we could reexamine the ring crack model. The outside cracks under rolling contact fatigue were propagated by contact stresses alone and also the inside cracks grew as slowly as the outside cracks. We concluded that the cracks are propagated by the single effect of contact stresses. Preliminary observations of surface crack growth showed that the cracks were unaffected by wear and residual stresses.     

Flaking failures originating from microholes of bearings under rolling contact fatigue

Rolling contact fatigue tests were carried out using plates with microholes (diameter was about 100 μm and depth was about 140 μm) under three different loads (maximum values of Hertzian stress were about 3250, 3550 and 3840 MPa, respectively) and the surface cracks initiating from those holes were observed. It was found that there is a threshold value of maximum Hertzian stress whether surface cracks originate from microholes or not, and its value is between 3250 and 3550 MPa. However, flaking failures occurred even when the stress values were lower than the threshold value. In order to investigate the relation between the flaking failures and the cracks, sectional observations of the subsurface cracks were made before and after the surface layer separations. From these observations, it was found that the subsurface cracks caused the flaking failures even when the maximum value of Hertzian stress was lower than the threshold value of surface crack initiation.     

Determination of porous glass surface free energy components from contact angles

The contact angles of water drops and diiodomethane drops on pellets made of controlled porosity glasses have been measured. The surface of the glasses was modified by thermal treatment at 873 K which led to an increase in the surface concentration of boron atoms. Glass modified with Carbowax 20M (polyethylene glycol) and fully hydroxylated glass have also been studied. Using the measured contact angles and modified Young equation, the dispersion and nondispersion components of the glass surface free energy have been calculated. The values show that with increasing heating time (increasing surface density of boron atoms) an increase in the surface polarity takes place. However, the polarity of the same samples decreases after treatment with Carbowax, increasingly so with higher boron atom concentrations.     

基于简化Jones-Harris方法的球轴承接触角研究

作为球轴承重要的结构参数之一,接触角对轴承组件的载荷分布、运动关系、润滑、摩擦等都有重要的影响。将求解惯性力所涉及的变量耦合关系进行简化,提出了用于研究球轴承接触角特性的简化Jones-Harris方法(SJHM),通过预先给定内圈偏转角,克服了直接迭代法难以考虑内圈偏转角对接触角影响规律的不足。以b218轴承为对象,验证了SJHM方法的有效性;在此基础上,分析了多种因素对接触角的影响规律。研究结果表明：相比陀螺力矩的影响,离心力对内、外接触角的影响更加显著;接触角对轴承内圈偏转角的变化非常敏感,内圈偏转角会使同一个滚动体的内、外接触角同时增大或减小。     

The role of materials in the design and application of rolling contact bearings

The importance of high quality steels and special high temperature treatments for rolling contact fatigue performance are discussed. Developments needed to cope with special requirements in aero-engine and adverse environments are described. The potential uses of ceramic materials are noted.     

计及套圈变形的电主轴角接触球轴承动刚度分析

针对高速电主轴结构特点,应用弹性力学和滚动轴承动力学理论,建立考虑内圈弯曲变形影响的角接触球轴承动刚度分析模型,探讨不同工况下内圈的径向挠度及其对轴承动刚度的影响,最后在12MD60Y6型号电主轴上进行轴承动刚度测试。理论和实验结果表明,内圈径向挠度和轴承的轴向载荷成正比、与转速成反比,在重载条件下其值不容忽视。考虑内圈径向挠度的轴承动刚度计算结果更接近实验结果。     

Crack initiation from micro surface holes in bearings under rolling contact fatigue

Investigations concerning surface crack growth are necessary for understanding the mechanism of rolling contact fatigue (RCF) of bearings because the surface defects cause flaking failures. In the present work, micro holes were artificially made prior to the RCF tests and the initiation of the surface cracks from the micro holes was observed in order to find the key factors for understanding their features. Crack initiation directions were compared to the stress intensity factors calculated by a simple method based on the theory. The extent to which ‘contact pressure (wedge effect)’ and ‘contact stresses’ are applicable for understanding the correlations between the crack initiation directions and stress intensity factors is discussed. The crack initiation directions are strongly correlated to the stress intensity factors caused by the contact stresses alone. We concluded that the crack growth and initiation are dominated by stress intensity factors caused by contact stresses rather than the wedge effect.     

An improved dynamic model for angular contact ball bearings under constant preload

High-speed spindles are typically installed with angular contact ball bearings. This research has established a dynamic model for angular contact ball bearings under constant preload. By analyzing the constant preload mechanism, and the gyroscopic and centripetal forces, a dynamic non-linear model for angular contact ball bearings was proposed using Hertz contact theory. The model was solved by numerical iteration to obtain the dynamic parameters of an angular contact ball bearing which included: the dynamic normal contact force and contact angle, the maximum compressive stress and axial displacement, the contact pattern, stiffnesses, etc. To validate the model, a test device was designed which was equipped with a constant preloaded bearing group. By measuring the relative displacement of the bearings’ inner and outer rings under different conditions, the accuracy of the model was proved. This modeling method provided a theoretical basis for calculating bearing thermal characteristics, fatigue life, and an optimized radius of curvature of the bearing ring channel.     

Improved inverted bubble method for measuring small contact angles at crystal-solution-vapor interfaces

We propose and evaluate an improvement of the inverted bubble method, originally proposed by McLachlan and Cox [Rev. Sci. Instrum. 46, 80 (1975)], a technique for measuring small contact angles at crystal-solution-vapor interfaces on a gas bubble under a solid immersed in a test solution. A simple experimental setup is used to evaluate the proposed method. We conclude that the method is suitable for measuring small contact angles with a minimum detectable angle of about 3 degrees . Improvements in instrument design are proposed to lower the detection limit to 0.5 degrees or below.