Fatigue crack initiation in alpha-beta titanium alloys

Fatigue crack initiation constitutes that part of total life, which includes the nucleation life, N_n, of an initial crack-like-discontinuity (CLD) and the growth life, N_s, of the CLD to an observable size called an initiated crack. This sequence dominates the total fatigue life of defect-free alpha-beta titanlum alloys. The mechanisms of CLD formation and its growth to the initiated crack at room temperature are reviewed in light of controlling microstructure and other metallurgical features. Recommendations are made for improving fatigue crack initiation resistance with consideration to practical limitations.     

Fatigue crack growth in two-phase alloys

Abstract

Stress intensity levels at the tip of cracks approaching and growing past second-phase particles have been computed using finite element methods. It is predicted that particles having a lower modulus than the matrix (i.e. ‘soft’ particles) attract and accelerate cracks growing into their vicinity, whereas ‘hard’ particles deflect them and retard local growth. A reverse, but weaker, effect is indicated once the crack has extended past a particle. Using a ferrite matrix with either spheroidized cementite or spheroidal graphite as the second phase, these predictions have been largely verified experimentally. An apparent anomaly is the cross-over in the growth rate curves of the cast iron and the totally ferritic microstructure. However, this may be explained by the requirement for the crack to reinitiate following its interaction with each graphite particle, during which decohesion of the particle/matrix interface occurs.

MST/417     

Fatigue crack growth in heat-treated aluminium alloys

Fatigue crack propagation tests have been performed in several heat-treated aluminium alloys under constant amplitude loading. All experiments were performed, in load control, in a servo-hydraulic closed-loop mechanical test machine. The tests were carried out using middle tension, M(T), specimens. The influence of stress ratio and thickness were analysed. Crack closure was monitored in all tests by the compliance technique using a pin microgauge. A strong stress ratio and material dependence effects on the fatigue crack growth were observed. These effects are discussed in terms of the different dominant closure mechanism. The crack growth behaviour of heat-treated aluminium alloys depends mainly on whether the dominant closure mechanism is plasticity-induced or roughness-induced. The enhancement of roughness-induced closure promotes higher crack growth resistance in these alloys. Roughness-induced closure dominates crack closure in aluminium alloys age hardened by naturally ageing and also artificially aged alloys with higher contents of Mn and Cr elements. In alloys aged hardened by artificially ageing and simultaneously with a lower content of these alloying elements plasticity-induced closure is dominant.     

Fatigue crack growth rate model for metallic alloys

A model has been created to allow the quantitative estimation of the fatigue crack growth rate in steels as a function of mechanical properties, test-specimen characteristics, stress-intensity range and test-frequency. With this design, the remarkable result is that the method which is based on steels, can be used without modification, and without any prior fatigue test, to estimate the crack growth rates in nickel, titanium and aluminium alloys. It appears therefore that a large proportion of the differences in the fatigue crack growth rate of metallic alloys can be explained in terms of the macroscopic tensile properties of the material rather than the details of the microstructure and chemical composition.     

Fatigue crack initiation and growth in solder alloys

In modern electronic packaging, especially surface mount technology (SMT), thermal strain is usually induced between components during processing, and in service, by a mismatch in the thermal expansion coefficients. Since solder has a low melting temperature and is softer than other components in electronic packaging, most of the cyclic stresses and strains take place in the solder. Fatigue crack initiation and fatigue crack propagation are likely to occur in the solder even when the cyclic stress is below the yield stress. It is an objective of this research to study the behaviour of fatigue crack initiation and propagation in both lead‐containing solder (63Sn‐37Pb), and lead‐free solders (Sn‐3.5Ag). The effect of alloying (Cu and Bi addition), frequency, tensile hold time and temperature on low cycle fatigue (LCF) behaviour of the solders is discussed. Mechanisms of LCF crack initiation and propagation are proposed and LCF life prediction, based on the various models, is carried out.     

梯度钛合金裂纹扩展速率测试及梯度对扩展寿命影响

为明确梯度材料中裂纹扩展速率分布情况,对含裂纹TC11-TC4以及TA15-TA2两种组合梯度钛合金进行标准三点弯疲劳试验。试验结果表明:梯度结构中不同部位的相同组分扩展性能相同,给出了4种3D打印组分钛合金的Paris公式;梯度材料组分弹性模量的变化会改变裂纹尖端应力强度因子,对位于模量较低一侧的裂纹扩展有抑制作用;过渡层影响厚度范围内裂纹扩展速率介于两种组分之间且连续过渡,表明梯度材料可以消除异种材料连接的界面效应,提出基于组分材料体积分量的混合率描述梯度层中扩展性能的分布规律;恒定载荷试验中仅扩展方向不同情况下寿命有显著差别,验证了合理安排梯度参数可提高结构出现裂纹后的生存能力,其中扩展性能以及模量的变化分布对扩展寿命均有影响。     

Fatigue crack closure and crack growth behaviour in a titanium alloy with different microstructures

Fatigue crack closure and crack growth behaviour in Ti–2.5 wt % Cu alloy with two equiaxed and two lamellar microstructures have been investigated by constant-load amplitudetests. Plasticity-induced crack closure and roughness-induced crack closure have been characterized separately by experimental methods. A change in closure mechanism from plasticity-induced crack closure at high K values (region of high stress intensity ranges)to roughness-induced crack closure at low K values occurs in a solution-annealed equiaxed microstructure, while plasticity-induced crack closure is the operative closure mechanism in an over-aged equiaxed microstructure over the whole range of K and roughness-induced crack closure occurs in two lamellar microstructures. The crack closing stress intensity factor for plasticity-induced crack closure increases continuously with increasing maximum stress intensity. The crack closing stress intensity factor for roughness-induced crack closure increases with increasing maximum stress intensity at low K, and remains constant at high K. Crack closure and crack path deflection have a significant influence on the crack growth rates. © 1998 Kluwer Academic Publishers     

Fatigue crack growth behavior in weld-repaired high-strength low-alloy steel

Fatigue crack growth properties and Vickers micro-hardness of a weld-repaired high-strength low-alloy steel, known for high strength, low carbon, excellent notch toughness and good weldability and formability, have been studied under the following conditions: as-received high-strength low-alloy, weld-repaired high-strength low-alloy without buffer layer, and weld-repaired high-strength low-alloy with various thickness buffer layers. Those conditions are examined to determine the respective fatigue crack growth behaviors and Vickers hardness distribution, and the effects of different weld-repaired conditions on fatigue characterizations and microscopic features of the fracture and fatigue surface. The extended-compact tension specimen geometry is adopted in this study for all tests. Paris fatigue crack growth curves and the hardness distribution across weld metal, buffer layer and parent metal has been measured together with the relevant scanning electron microscope observations along the fatigue crack growth path, with special attention at and around the interfaces between the weld metal, buffer layer and parent metal. The results show the presence of the BL of a moderate thickness has a significant influence on the fatigue crack growth behavior in the heat-affected zone and around the interface between buffer layer and parent metal. The fatigue resistance of the selected high-strength low-alloy + buffer layer + weld metal tri-metal system is higher than that of the high-strength low-alloy + weld metal bi-metal system.     

Fatigue crack growth behavior of Sn-Pb and Sn-based lead-free solders

Solder alloys of lead-rich composition have been commonly used as joining materials in electronic package. However, because of environmental concerns, lead-free solders will replace lead-rich solders more and more in the future. The fatigue characteristics of the solders used are most important in assessing the reliability of joints in electronic packaging. In the present study, the fatigue crack growth (FCG) behavior of a wide variety of solders of both lead-rich and lead-free types has been investigated under a range of mean stresses and frequencies. Both time dependent and time independent (cyclic dependent) behaviors were observed. In the cyclic dependent crack growth regime, the FCG rates could be expressed as a function of either ΔK_eff or ΔJ. Further, the lead-free solders were found to have a higher resistance to FCG than did the lead-rich solders. In the time dependent crack growth regime, the FCG rates were found to be a function of C∗. The point of transition between time dependent and time independent behavior was found to depend on the homologous temperature and strength of the alloys.     

Environmental interactions with fatigue crack growth in alpha/beta titanium alloys

The impact of different environments on the growth of short through cracks (0.25 mm<a<3 mm) in thin section DEN test pieces (t=2 mm) is evaluated for the titanium alloy IMI318 (Ti–6Al–4V) at atmosphere. Both oxidising and reducing atmospheres have been considered in the form of air, chlorine and hydrogen gas at various levels of partial pressure. Data are presented for crack growth under cyclic and dwell waveforms and for R values of 0.01 and 0.625. It is demonstrated that the measured rates are extremely sensitive to the gaseous species. This sensitivity is reflected in fracture surface features and quasi-cleavage facetting in particular. The implications for engineering component life predictions are discussed.     

Fatigue crack growth behavior of silica particulate reinforced epoxy resin composite

In the present work, fatigue crack growth tests of epoxy resin composite reinforced with silica particle under various R-ratios were carried out to investigate the effect of R-ratio on crack growth behavior and to discuss fatigue crack growth mechanism. Crack growth curves arranged by ΔK showed clear R-ratio dependence even under no crack closure, where the values of ΔK_th were 0.82 and 0.33 MPa √m for R = 0.1 and 0.7 respectively. However, crack growth curves arranged by K_max merged into almost one curve regardless of R-ratio, which indicated that crack growth behavior of the present composite was time-dependent. The value of K_max,th were in the range from 0.78 to 1.12 MPa √m. In situ crack growth observation revealed the crack growth mechanism: micro-cracking near the interface between silica particle and resin matrix occurs ahead of a main crack and then micro-cracks coalesce with a main crack to grow. The crack path was in the epoxy matrix, which was consistent with the time-dependent crack growth.     

Fatigue crack growth behaviour of gamma base titanium aluminides under different loading conditions

Static and cyclic fatigue crack growth behaviour of gamma base titanium aluminides with three different microstructures were investigated. Influence of cyclic test frequency on fatigue crack growth behaviour was also studied at room temperature under a controlled humidity condition. The crack growth behaviour both under static and cyclic loading was strongly influenced by the microstructure. The threshold stress intensity and crack growth behaviour under cyclic loading were much inferior than that under static loading indicating the ‘true-cyclic fatigue’ effect exhibited in gamma base titanium aluminides. No significant effect of test frequency on the crack growth behaviour was observed for the equiaxed and duplex microstructure materials.     

Fatigue crack growth in polymers

A number of fatigue crack propagation laws applied in the study of polymers is described. Consideration of the stress field distribution at the crack tip leads to the application of fracture mechanics. It is shown that a simplified relationship of the form da/dN =F , where is a function ofK _IC,K _max,K _min andK _TH appears to be a convenient expression for cyclic crack growth. The effect of mean stress is more complicated than that in the field of metals, the compressive component of cyclic stress may delay the crack growth. Cyclic tests in tension performed on PMMA and PVC are dependent on K and its mean value,K _m . The threshold value,K _TH, is also influenced byK _m but a more complicated behaviour due to strain rate effects may be observed. Other differences, such as the position of upper and lower transition points and growth rate changes with frequence, are noted. The effect of biaxial cyclic loading of PMMA and PVC plates is compared and some differences highlighted. The results available so far indicate little effect of the crack curving on its growth. However, it is shown that, while the increasing biaxiality can substantially retard the crack growth in PMMA, no such effect was recorded in PVC. Finally, it is shown that at very high stress levels (region III), the cyclic crack growth consists of two propagation modes, namely, a pure cyclic propagation, together with slow growth. At lower stress levels, slow growth disappears and the crack propagates in pure fatigue (region II). In region I, the propagation is very slow, without the usual correspondence between cycles and striations. The results recently obtained on glass reinforced plastics (GRP) are also presented and differences highlighted.

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Résumé On décrit les diverses lois de propagation des fissures de fatigue appliquées a l'étude des polymères. En considérant la distribution de champs de contrainte a 1'extremité de la fissure, on est conduit á appliquer la mécanique de la rupture. On montre qu'une relation simplifiée de la forme da/dN =F ^a, où est une fonction deK _IC,K _max,K _min etKTH apparait être une expression convenable pour la croissance cyclique d'une fissure. L'effet de la contrainte moyenne est plus complexe que dans le domaine des métaux et la composante de compression du cycle de contraintes pent différer la croissance de la fissure. Des essais cycliques en traction exécutés sur du PMMA et du PVC dépendent de K et de la valeur moyenneK _m . La valeur de seuilK _TH est également influencée parK _m mais un comportement plus complexe associé aux effets de vitesses de déformation peut être observé aux effets de vitesees de déformation peut être observé. D'autres differénces, telles que la position des points de transition supérieurs et inférieurs ainsi que les changements de vitesse de croissance avec la fréquence ont été notées. L'effet d'une mise en charge cyclique biaxiale d'un PMMA ou d'un PVC sous forme de plaque est comparé et on met en avant certaines des différences observées. Les résultats disponibles jusqu'ici indiquent un effet modéré de la courbure de la fissure sur sa propagation. Cependant, on montre que si une biaxialité croissante pent retarder d'une manière substancielle la croissance d'une fissure dans du PMMA, aucun effet de ce genre n a été enregistré dans le cas d'un PVC. Enfin, on montre que pour des niveaux de contrainte très élevés (région III) la croissance cyclique d'une fissure consiste en deux modes de propagation, à savoir une propagation purement cyclique accompagnée d'une croissance lente. A des niveaux de contrainte plus faible, la phase de croissance lente disparait et la propagation de la fissure s'effectue en fatigue pure (région II). Dans la région I, la propagation est très lente sans que se présente la correspondance usuelle entre les cycles et les striures. Les résultats récemment obtenus sur des plastiques renforcés de verre (GRP) sont également présentés et les differences en sont mises en évidence.

     

Fatigue crack growth behavior of X2095 Al–Li alloy

Microstructures and micro-textures of X2095 Al–Li alloy in as-received/superplastic state were characterized by means of SEM/BDS, X-ray diffraction and orientation imaging microscopy (OIM). It was observed that the microstructure of the alloy was typical of a particulate-reinforced composite material, consisting of aluminum matrix and homogeneously distributed T_B(Al₇Cu₄Li) particles with a volume fraction of about 10%. Brass-type texture was the dominant texture component. Both constant amplitude and near-threshold fatigue crack growth rates of the alloy in the L–T and T–L orientations were determined at different stress ratios. Particular attention was paid to the role of the T_B phase in the fatigue crack growth. When a fatigue crack approached a T_B particle, the crack basically meandered to avoid the particle. The T_B particles thus provided a strong resistance to the propagation of fatigue crack by promoting crack deflection and the related crack closure effects. The fatigue crack propagation behavior has been explained by the microstructural features, micro-textures, cracking characteristics and crack closure effects.     

Fatigue and fatigue crack growth of aluminium alloys at very high numbers of cycles

The application of ultrasonic frequency (20 kHz) loading to test fatigue and fracture mechanical properties of materials is briefly reviewed and recent investigations on high strength aluminium alloys are reported. Very high cycle endurance tests and near threshold crack growth experiments were performed with the 2024-T351 aluminium alloy. Lifetimes are approximately 10–100 times lower, if cycled in distilled water instead of ambient air. Fatigue experiments under randomly varying loads showed that linear damage summation calculations overestimated lifetimes by approximately a factor 2. Fracture mechanics studies in ambient air, dry air and in vacuum served to investigate the role of air humidity on near threshold fatigue crack growth at ultrasonic frequency. The threshold value was 2.1 MPa√m in ambient air and 3.3 MPa√m in vacuum. The aluminium alloy AlZnMgCu1.5-T66 and the aluminiumoxyde particle reinforced alloy 6061-T6 were tested at 100 Hz and 20 kHz to investigate frequency influences on high cycle fatigue properties, and similar lifetimes were found at both frequencies.