Tribological behavior of select MAX phases against Al2O3 at elevated temperatures

The layered M_n+1AC_n ternary carbides – MAX phases – Ta₂AlC, Ti₂AlC, Cr₂AlC and Ti₃SiC₂ were tested under dry sliding conditions against alumina at 550 °C and 3 N load (for a stress of ≈0.08 MPa) using a pin-on-disk tribometer. Ta₂AlC and Ti₂AlC exhibited low specific wear rates, SWRs, (≤1 × 10⁻⁶ mm³/N m), while the coefficients of friction, μ, were 0.9 and 0.6, respectively. At 0.4, μ of Ti₃SiC₂ was the lowest measured, but the SWR, at ≈2 × 10⁻⁴ mm³/N m, was high. With a μ of 0.44 and a SWR of 6 × 10⁻⁵ mm³/N m the Cr₂AlC sample was in between. No visible wear of Al₂O₃ counterparts was observed in all the tribocouples. Tribofilms, which were mainly comprised of X-ray amorphous oxides of the M and A elements and, in some cases, unoxidized grains of the corresponding MAX phases, were formed on the contact surfaces. The correlations between observed tribological properties and tribofilm characteristics are discussed.     

An approach for transition correlation of laminar pulsatile pipe flows via frictional field characteristics

Transition of laminar pulsatile pipe flow into turbulence is one of the current research topics in flow dynamics. Despite the existence of a considerable number of theoretical and experimental studies, the physical mechanism of transition is not well defined. Furthermore, there is almost no information on the start and the end of the transition in terms of pulsatile flow parameters.

In this paper, an approach which consists of attempts to correlate the governing flow parameters is presented to reveal the transition process with particular emphasis on the frictional field. The experimental data collected in slightly compressible, Newtonian, one-dimensional laminar pulsatile pipe flow without a flow reversal were compiled for this purpose. The common oscillation parameters, dimensionless frequency parameter and velocity amplitude ratio A₁ were the main variables of the experimental study covering the ranges of and 0.05≤A₁≤0.8. The time history of local static pressure gradient and axial velocity field were accumulated and the data were expressed through pulsatile flow, instantaneous λ_u(t) and time-averaged λ_u,ta friction factors using momentum-integral equation. A reference friction factor ratio λ_R, whose definition was based on the concept of steady flow friction was introduced. The start and the end of transition were predicted through the functional relationships of λ_R with time-averaged and oscillating Reynolds numbers, Re_ta and Re_os by means of a trial–error procedure. The proposed correlations and determined approximate critical limits of transition are only valid in the corresponding ranges of 2000≤Re_ta≤60 000, 620≤Re_os≤18 800 and the analysis is open to discussion.     

Modification of the surface of cross-linked oligophenylene based on 4,4''-diacetyldiphenyloxide and acetophenone by IR laser radiation

The influence of quasi-momentum IR laser radiation (CO₂ laser; wavelength λ = 10.6 μm; power density W = 70 W cm⁻²) on the physicochemical and mechanical properties of the surface of articles made from oligophenylene has been investigated. These oligomers were produced by the reaction of 4,4'-diacetyldiphenyl oxide and acetophenone and were filled with graphite. The measurements of the interfacial wetting angle demonstrated the influence of the irradiation dose on the surface energy. The relations between the coefficient of friction, wear and microhardness and the IR radiation dose were established. It was found that quasi-momentum IR laser radiation makes it possible to change significantly the structure of surface layers and to improve the tribological properties of polyphenylene without changing its chemical structure and initial physical properties as a whole.     

Mechanical and tribological properties of nanostructured TiN/TiBN multilayer films

Nanostructured multilayer films of TiN/TiBN with different bilayer thicknesses (Λ) were deposited onto Si(1 0 0) wafers (for mechanical analyses) and AISI M42 tool steels (for tribological measurements) at room temperature by reactive unbalanced magnetron sputtering in an Ar–N₂ gas mixture. The effects of different Λ values on mechanical and tribological properties were studied by atomic force microscope (AFM), scanning electron microscope (SEM), microindentation measurements, Rockwell-C tester, nano- and micro-scratch tester, impact tester, pin-on-disc tribometer, and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). It was found that the mechanical and tribological properties of multilayer films (typically 1.4 ± 0.1 μm in thickness) were closely related to Λ (varied from 1.4 to 9.7 nm). For the best multilayer film with Λ = 1.8 nm, a maximum hardness of 29.5 GPa was achieved and the best cohesive and adhesive strength was evidenced in terms of critical load values of L_C1 (37 N), L_C2 (>80 N) and the highest adhesion strength (HF1). Moreover, by the dynamic impact testing this multilayer film could endure impact cycles up to 4 × 10⁵ without adhesive failure. It was also found that the nano-scratch test under single-pass and constant-load conditions showed that the frictional coefficients decreased with Λ and increased with normal load due to the ploughing effect. The enhanced hardness in the multilayer films with small Λ values improved the wear resistance and lowered the frictional coefficients. The frictional coefficients obtained at 5 N were kept at 0.5 and increased from 0.52 to 0.65 when Λ increased from 1.8 to 9.7 nm at 2 N. By FTIR analyses, the multilayer films with Λ = 1.8 and 2.2 nm showed the presence of h-BN which provided a lubricating function resulted in lower frictional coefficients and wear rates. The tribological properties of the TiN/TiBN multilayer films with different Λ values are also explained in terms of mechanical properties and wear mechanisms.     

含微水绝缘油表面张力的中红外光谱检测

为了有效监控绝缘油的运行状态,采用定量分析方法探讨了微量水分对绝缘油表面张力的影响规律。通过配制不同微水含量的绝缘油样,对每组油样进行表面张力测试,然后对油样进行红外光谱扫描,获取了油样中水分在特征波数处(1 640,3 400,3 450,3 615cm-1)的吸光度值。分析了油液中2,6-二叔丁基对甲酚(T501)等添加剂对油样表面张力变化规律的影响。结果表明:油样中水分含量与水分特征吸光度值之间有较好的相关性(相关系数分别为0.964 1,0.984 8,0.984 5,0.944 0),油样表面张力和1 640,3 400,3 450,3 615,3 650cm-1波数处油样吸光度值的变化亦均呈现良好的正相关性。建立了油样表面张力与特征波数处油样吸光度值的多元线性回归模型,拟合精度为0.992 8;根据模型得到的表面张力计算值与实际测量值误差为-0.07~0.06%,吻合性较好。文中的实验可为含微水绝缘油的表面张力检测提供理论支撑。     

Kinetic friction and dynamic elastic contact behaviour of polymers

Friction and contact between a glass hemisphere and plates of various polymers were studied under elastic contact. The contact at various sliding speeds was observed by means of Newton's rings. Although the frictional force was proportional to the area of contact observed, it was necessary to consider the increase in the shearing strength of the adhesive junctions with increasing load W. The area of dynamic contact of low density polyethylene (LDPE) was proportional to W^0.78 in a wide speed range, while the area of static contact was proportional to W^2/3 as expected from Hertz' equation. The shape of the dynamic contact was affected by the retarded elasticity of the polymer and frictional heating. The area of dynamic contact decreased and the shear strength increased in proportion to log v (where v is the speed) provided that frictional heating was negligible. The time dependence of elastic compliance 1/E of LDPE could be obtained by applying Hertz' equation to the dynamic contact observed at various speeds. However, the value of 1/E decreased with decreasing load in sliding. It was shown that the time dependence of elastic compliance plays an important role in determining the area of dynamic contact of polymers.     

A rate-dependent model for hot-rolling

A rate-dependent model for the plane-strain sheet-rolling problem is proposed. The governing equations are solved using an asymptotic scheme that assumes that the ratio δ of thickness of the sheet material at the entry to the roll-bite length is small. Both the relative-slip and no-slip sheet-roll interface conditions are considered. Depending on the magnitude of the friction, different regimes that correspond to different levels of shear deformation have been identified and asymptotic solutions are provided for each of these regimes. The effect of the reduction, the strain-rate hardening parameter and the magnitude of the friction on the field variables and the roll-speed is also studied. Further, it is shown that in the limit as the strain-rate hardening index n → ∞, the asymptotic solutions for the rate-dependent model are shown to approach those predicted by rigid perfectly-plastic theory. The theoretical predictions are compared with experimental results for a commercial purity aluminum. The comparisons indicate a reasonable agreement between theory and experiment.     

Probing model tumor interfacial properties using piezoelectric cantilevers

Invasive malignant breast cancers are typically branchy and benign breast tumors are typically smooth. It is of interest to characterize tumor branchiness (roughness) to differentiate invasive malignant breast cancer from noninvasive ones. In this study, we examined the shear modulus (G) to elastic modulus (E) ratio, G/E, as a quantity to describe model tumor interfacial roughness using a piezoelectric cantilever capable of measuring both tissue elastic modulus and tissue shear modulus. The piezoelectric cantilever used had two lead zirconate titanate layers to facilitate all-electrical elastic (shear) modulus measurements using one single device. We constructed model tissues with tumors by embedding one-dimensional (1D) corrugated inclusions and three-dimensional (3D) spiky-ball inclusions made of modeling clay in gelatin. We showed that for smooth inclusions, G/E was 0.3 regardless of the shear direction. In contrast, for a 1D corrugated rough inclusion G/E was 0.3 only when the shear was parallel to corrugation and G/E increased with an increasing angle between the shear direction and the corrugation. When the shear was perpendicular to corrugation, G/E became >0.7. For 3D isotropic spiky-ball inclusions we showed that the G/E depended on the degree of the roughness. Using the ratio s/r of the spike length (s) to the overall inclusion radius (r) as a roughness parameter, we showed that for inclusions with s/r larger than or equal to 0.28, the G/E ratio over the inclusions was larger than 0.7 whereas for inclusions with s/r less than 0.28, the G/E decreased with decreasing s/r to around 0.3 at s/r=0. In addition, we showed that the depth limit of the G/E measurement is twice the width of the probe area of the piezoelectric cantilever.     

Effect of high beta values on mass flow through critical flow nozzles

In a previous work (Stewart et al., Flow Measurement and Instrumentation 10(1) (1999) 27–34) the authors presented improved calculations for the mass flow of a gas through a critical flow nozzle. The work in Stewart et al. is applicable only when the nozzle throat to pipe diameter ratio, β, is low (<0.15). Whilst it is preferable to use a critical flow nozzle with a low β, practical considerations may dictate otherwise. This work extends the calculations to include high β values, explaining the problems encountered in these situations and the procedure for calculating the mass flow accordingly. The same four gases are covered, dry CO₂-free air, nitrogen, argon, and methane. A new empirical correction factor for use with high β critical flow nozzles is presented which, when combined with the work in Stewart et al., provides an accurate yet simple method for calculating the mass flow of these gases through critical flow nozzles with a wide range of β values.     

Run-in behavior of nanocrystalline diamond coatings studied by in situ tribometry

The friction performance of nanocrystalline diamond coatings was evaluated using in situ tribometry with sapphire counterfaces. Coatings were grown by microwave plasma assisted chemical vapor deposition in an Ar–H–CH₄ plasma, with H ranging from 0 to 36%. In situ examination of the sliding contact, combined with ex situ analysis of the sapphire counterface revealed that the velocity accommodation mode was interfacial sliding of a carbonaceous transfer film versus the coating wear track. For most tests, the contact diameter increased during the first 50 sliding cycles and then remained constant. The in situ measure of the contact diameter was found to correlate confidently to ex situ measurements of counterface wear. The performance of the diamond coatings, characterized by quick run-in to low friction was best when a small but detectable graphite peak was present in the X-ray diffraction (XRD) profile. The relative intensity of the XRD graphite peak was also found to directly correlate with the peak position of the C1s → π* transition as measured by near-edge X-ray absorption fine structure (NEXAFS) spectroscopy. Increasing the relative amount of graphite-bonded sp² carbon in the NCD films decreased run-in cycles to low friction.     

面向小样本高维数据的秩检验非参控制图

针对某些制造业质量数据存在的数据分布未知、数据维度高、受控样本少等特点,提出一种基于高维秩检验的多元非参数监控方案.通过生成观测值的秩矩阵并进行渐近秩变换,得到渐近秩变换检验数T?n;基于检验数T?n设计具有滑动窗口的EWMA控制图,即HREWMA控制图.通过马尔可夫链对HREWMA控制图在不同条件(样本维度,均值漂移...     

An invariant descriptor for conjugate forced convection-conduction cooling of 3D protruding heaters in channel flow

In this research, the temperatures of three-dimensional (3D) protruding heaters mounted on a conductive substrate in a horizontal rectangular channel with laminar airflow are related to the independent power dissipation in each heater by using a matrix G⁺ with invariant coefficients, which are dimensionless. These coefficients are defined in this study as the conjugate influence coefficients (g⁺) caused by the forced convection-conduction nature of the heaters’ cooling process. The temperature increase of each heater in the channel is quantified to clearly identify the contributions attributed to the self-heating and power dissipation in the other heaters (both upstream and downstream). The conjugate coefficients are invariant with the heat generation rate in the array of heaters when assuming a defined geometry, invariable fluid and flow rate, and constant substrate and heater conductivities. The results are numerically obtained by considering three 3D protruding heaters on a two-dimensional (2D) array by ANSYS/Fluent^TM 15.0 software. The conservation equations are solved by a coupled procedure within a single calculation domain comprising of solid and fluid regions and by considering a steady state laminar airflow with constant properties. Some examples are shown, indicating the effects of substrate thermal conductivity and Reynolds number on conjugate influence coefficients.     

High strain rate compression of titanium and some titanium alloys

A modified Hopkinson bar was used to compress specimens of commercially-pure titanium, IMI 125 and titanium alloys, AMS 4911B and AMS 4916B, at natural strain rates of between 3 × 10³ s⁻¹ and 3 × 10⁴ s⁻¹. All three materials deformed in a viscous manner with a linear increase of flow stress with strain rate and a macroscopic viscosity of 4·5 kPa s, 5·7 kPa s and 9·2 kPa s, respectively. At strain rates above about 1 × 10⁴ s⁻¹ there was a decrease in macroscopic viscosities to 0·9 kPa s and 2·5 kPa s for the titanium and 4911B alloy respectively, which is attributed to changes in the dislocation drag mechanisms. The results for the 4916B alloy at the higher strain rates were too scattered to give a definite trend. It is suggested that the increase in the macroscopic viscosity with alloying is due to an increase in the dislocation drag coefficient by solution hardening and to a reduction in the density of mobile dislocations by dislocation pinning.

It is also proposed that the susceptibility of these materials to catastrophic shear failure which occurs without prior linear work-softening is due to the higher propensity for titanium and titanium alloys to shear failure as a consequence of their thermo-mechanical properties. The decrease of strain at which shear occurred with increasing strength is in accord with this suggestion.     

High-pass energy-filtered photoemission electron microscopy imaging of dopants in silicon

Differently doped areas in silicon can show strong electron-optical contrast in dependence on the dopant concentration and surface conditions. Photoemission electron microscopy is a powerful surface-sensitive technique suitable for fast imaging of doping-induced contrast in semiconductors. We report on the observation of Si (100) samples with n- and p-type doped patterns (with the dopant concentration varied from 10¹⁶ to 10¹⁹ cm⁻³) on a p- and n-type substrate (doped to 10¹⁵ cm⁻³), respectively. A high-pass energy filter of the entire image enabled us to obtain spectroscopic information, i.e. quantified photo threshold and related photoyield differences depending on the doping level. Measurements have confirmed the possibility of resolving areas at a high contrast even with the lowest dopant concentration when employing the energy filter. The influence of electron absorption phenomena on contrast formation is discussed.     

Towards phonon photonics: scattering-type near-field optical microscopy reveals phonon-enhanced near-field interaction

Diffraction limits the spatial resolution in classical microscopy or the dimensions of optical circuits to about half the illumination wavelength. Scanning near-field microscopy can overcome this limitation by exploiting the evanescent near fields existing close to any illuminated object. We use a scattering-type near-field optical microscope (s-SNOM) that uses the illuminated metal tip of an atomic force microscope (AFM) to act as scattering near-field probe. The presented images are direct evidence that the s-SNOM enables optical imaging at a spatial resolution on a 10 nm scale, independent of the wavelength used (λ=633 nm and 10 μm). Operating the microscope at specific mid-infrared frequencies we found a tip-induced phonon-polariton resonance on flat polar crystals such as SiC and Si₃N₄. Being a spectral fingerprint of any polar material such phonon-enhanced near-field interaction has enormous applicability in nondestructive, material-specific infrared microscopy at nanoscale resolution. The potential of s-SNOM to study eigenfields of surface polaritons in nanostructures opens the door to the development of phonon photonics—a proposed infrared nanotechnology that uses localized or propagating surface phonon polaritons for probing, manipulating and guiding infrared light in nanoscale devices, analogous to plasmon photonics.     

圆渐开线变截面涡旋压缩机几何性能综合分析

提出一种由不同基圆半径的圆渐开线组成的新型变截面涡旋压缩机型线,组成形式为圆渐开线Ⅰ+圆渐开线Ⅱ+圆渐开线Ⅰ。论述型线的生成方法,给出型线的一般方程,建立一系列圆渐开线变截面涡旋压缩机的几何模型。针对建立的几何模型,分析控制系数θ、φ^*、R_or对变截面涡旋压缩机几何性能的影响。以圆渐开线Ⅰ为基础,构建圆渐开线Ⅰ+高次曲线+圆渐开线Ⅰ的变截面涡旋压缩机的几何模型,综合分析两类变截面涡旋压缩机的几何性能。结果表明:θ取中值θ_M,φ^*取φ_end-2(n₁+1)π,控制系数R_or取较大值,对应的几何性能较优。高次曲线变截面涡旋压缩机与中值θ_M对应的圆渐开线变截面涡旋压缩机相似,可相互替代。     

Natural frequencies of shear deformable rhombic plates with clamped and simply supported edges

The natural vibrations of thick and thin rhombic plates with clamped and simply supported edges are analyzed, using assemblages of nine-node Lagrangian isoparametric quadrilateral C⁰ continuous finite elements based on a higher-order shear deformable thick plate theory. Here, additional nodal displacement degrees of freedom are derived by retaining higher-order powers of the thickness coordinate in the in-plane displacement fields, which in turn allows for the proper representation of the transverse shear strains of thick plates. Essential rotary inertia terms are derived and included in the present analysis. Nondimensional frequencies are calculated for thick and thin rhombic plates having various combinations of clamped and simply supported edge conditions, and skew angles. The efficacy of using higher-order shear deformable plate finite elements for predicting the in-plane vibration modes of rhombic plates is found to increase as the span-to-thickness ratio decreases and the skew angle increases. The present work shows that higher-order shear deformable finite elements essentially eliminate the transverse shear over-correction of thick rhombic plate frequencies that is produced when finite elements based on the widely used first-order Reissner-Mindlin plate theory are utilized.     

Comparative wear in titanium diboride coatings on steel using high energy density processes

A comparison between the tribological properties of titanium diboride (TiB₂) deposited using high energy density processes such as Pulse Electrode Surfacing (PES) and Laser Surface Engineering (LSE) has been made. The wear resistance of TiB₂ coated surface is higher than AISI 1010 steel. The wear resistance of the LSE coated TiB₂ coating is even better than that of the PES deposited TiB₂ coating. Coefficient of friction values for LSE coated TiB₂ coating (μ=0.6) are lower than PES deposited TiB₂ coating (μ=0.7). Wear occurs in PES deposited TiB₂ coating by brittle fracture and attrition type mechanisms whereas mixed adhesive–abrasive wear in LSE deposited TiB₂ coating occurs by localized plastic deformation of the soft matrix phase Fe from a “composite” layer on the surface.     

大尺寸单晶金刚石衬底抛光技术研究现状与展望

近些年来,化学气相沉积（Chemical vapor deposition,CVD）单晶金刚石在电子学领域的应用令人瞩目,这得益于CVD单晶金刚石在生长技术和半导体掺杂技术上的进展。一直以来,成熟的衬底加工技术是半导体材料得以应用的基础,其中超精密抛光作为晶圆衬底加工的最后一道工序,直接决定了晶圆表面粗糙度和亚表面损伤程度。可以预见,超精密抛光技术将会在制备大尺寸高质量金刚石衬底中发挥重要作用。对目前国内外现有的单晶金刚石抛光方法进行综述,以制备大尺寸高质量单晶金刚石衬底为目标,从加工设备、工艺参数、加工精度、加工效率和材料去除机理等方面进行分析,总结各种抛光方法的优势和缺点,展望未来大尺寸单晶金刚石衬底抛光技术的发展趋势。目前鲜有针对大尺寸单晶金刚石抛光技术的综述,本文为国内学者展开单晶金刚石抛光相关工作的研究提供综述资料。     

The high strain rate compression of 1023 and 4130 steels

Steel specimens of type 1023 and heat treated 4130 steel of hardnesses, between 257 and 450 HV10, were compressed at strain rates between 3 × 10³ and 3 × 10⁴ s⁻¹ using a modified Hopkinson bar. Both steels showed viscous type flow behaviour with a linear increase in flow stress with strain rate. For the 1023 steel there were two linear regions, one from 3 to 12 × 10³ s⁻¹ with a macroscopic viscosity of 4·7 kPa s and two from 14 to 27 × 10³ s⁻¹ with a viscosity of 0·7 kPa s. These results indicate some change in the controlling mechanism. For the 4130 steel the macroscopic viscosity decreased linearly with increasing hardness from 7·4 kPa s at 257 HV 10 to 2·2 kPa s at 450 HV 10. This was probably due to a decrease in the density of mobile dislocations with increased tempering temperatures. At lower hardness values (257 and 300 HV 10) and higher strain rates, a levelling off of the flow stress occurred but the data were too scattered to give a definite trend. The heat generated due to deformation of the 1023 steel was sufficient to produce steady state flow at strains above about 0·3. In the 4130 steel the thermo-mechanical properties were such that linear work softening was observed at a rate inversely proportional to the square root of the strain rate and independent of the hardness. This suggests that the work softening was a function of properties of the common ferrite matrix. The strain at which the work softening commenced decreased with increasing hardness, because of the more rapid heat generation at higher flow stresses. At higher hardness and higher strain rates 4130 steel failed by shear. Shear failure occurred at lower strain rates with increasing hardness and, for a given hardness, at lower strains with increasing strain rate. This behaviour was consistent with Recht's analysis of catastrophic shear failure.