High frequency ultrasound imaging using an active optical detector

Optical detection of ultrasound has numerous advantages over traditional piezoelectric methods. These systems offer noncontact inspection, rapid scanning capabilities, fine spatial sampling, and large bandwidths. In addition, difficulties associated with conventional ultrasound imaging systems such as cross-talk between elements, electrical connections, and electromechanical resonances are greatly reduced or even eliminated. Because of this, high frequency phased arrays for ultrasound detection can be emulated by accurately positioning and focusing optical beams on a suitable surface, which defines array elements. However, optical systems have lower sensitivity than their piezoelectric counterparts, limiting their widespread use in ultrasound imaging. Active optical detection offers a solution. An active ultrasound detector consisting of a neodymium-doped glass waveguide laser with an optical demodulation system, was built demonstrating enhanced sensitivity while preserving the benefits of traditional passive optical detection.     

Compact optical imaging system for arrays of optical thyristors

A compact and modular optical system that employs gradient-refractive-index rod lenses to image arrays of Lambertian sources is characterized both experimentally and by ray-tracing simulations. A hybrid optical system that incorporates additional microlens arrays to reduce transmittance losses and aberrations is also modeled, and the two systems are compared.     

Volumetric ultrasound imaging using 2-D CMUT arrays

Recently, capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducers (CMUTs) have emerged as a candidate to overcome the difficulties in the realization of 2-D arrays for real-time 3-D imaging. In this paper, we present the first volumetric images obtained using a 2-D CMUT array. We have fabricated a 128 x 128-element 2-D CMUT array with through-wafer via interconnects and a 420-microm element pitch. As an experimental prototype, a 32 x 64-element portion of the 128 x 128-element array was diced and flip-chip bonded onto a glass fanout chip. This chip provides individual leads from a central 16 x 16-element portion of the array to surrounding bondpads. An 8 x 16-element portion of the array was used in the experiments along with a 128-channel data acquisition system. For imaging phantoms, we used a 2.37-mm diameter steel sphere located 10 mm from the array center and two 12-mm-thick Plexiglas plates located 20 mm and 60 mm from the array. A 4 x 4 group of elements in the middle of the 8 x 16-element array was used in transmit, and the remaining elements were used to receive the echo signals. The echo signal obtained from the spherical target presented a frequency spectrum centered at 4.37 MHz with a 100% fractional bandwidth, whereas the frequency spectrum for the echo signal from the parallel plate phantom was centered at 3.44 MHz with a 91% fractional bandwidth. The images were reconstructed by using RF beamforming and synthetic phased array approaches and visualized by surface rendering and multiplanar slicing techniques. The image of the spherical target has been used to approximate the point spread function of the system and is compared with theoretical expectations. This study experimentally demonstrates that 2-D CMUT arrays can be fabricated with high yield using silicon IC-fabrication processes, individual electrical connections can be provided using through-wafer vias, and flip-chip bonding can be used to integrate these dense 2-D arrays with electronic circuits for practical 3-D imaging applications.     

High frequency coded imaging system with RF

Coded transmission is an approach to solve the inherent compromise between penetration and resolution required in ultrasound imaging. Our goal was to examine the applicability of the coded excitation to HF (20-35 MHz) ultrasound imaging. A novel real-time imaging system for research and evaluation of the coded transmission was developed. The digital programmable coder- digitizer module based on the field programmable gate array (FPGA) chip supports arbitrary waveform coded transmission and RF echo sampling up to 200 megasamples per second, as well as real-time streaming of digitized RF data via a high-speed USB interface to the PC. All RF and image data processing were implemented in the software. A novel balanced software architecture supports real-time processing and display at rates up to 30 frames/sec. The system was used to acquire quantitative data for sine burst and 16-bit Golay code excitation at 20 MHz fundamental frequency. SNR gain close to 14 dB was obtained. The example of the skin scan clearly shows the extended penetration and improved contrast when a 35-MHz Golay code is used. The system presented is a practical and low-cost implementation of a coded excitation technique in HF ultrasound imaging that can be used as a research tool as well as to be introduced into production.     

High capacity optical beam forming for phased arrays with fiber gratings and frequency conversion for beat noise control

A new wavelength division multiplexing grating-based beam-forming architecture for phased arrays that can achieve the minimum possible number of optical interconnects is presented. A reduction in interconnect hardware of 99.6% is obtained for a 512-beam array, which is, as far as we know, the lowest number of interconnects reported to date. Analysis of the ultimate beam capacity limit of the beam former shows that the beat noise interference limitation is the most important factor. We present a new hybrid frequency-converting optical beam former that removes the fundamental beat noise limitation. This frequency downconverts the rf signal to an intermediate frequency before performing the true-time-delay equalization in the optical domain. The resulting advantage of reduced optical bandwidth per channel enables more wavelengths to be used for a given wavelength span, resulting in an increased beam capacity. A greater than sevenfold increase in beam capacity is demonstrated through the use of the frequency conversion technique, with 960 beams synthesized at 12.4 GHz, showing a 99.8% reduction in required interconnects.     

High frequency optoacoustic arrays using etalon detection

Two-dimensional phased arrays for high frequency (>30 MHz) ultrasonic imaging are difficult to construct using conventional piezoelectric technology. A promising alternative involves optical detection of ultrasound, where the array element size is defined by the focal spot of a laser beam. Element size and spacing on the order of a few microns are easily achieved, suitable for imaging at frequencies exceeding 100 MHz. We have previously shown images made from a receive-only, two-dimensional optoacoustic array operating at 10 to 50 MHz. The main drawback of optical detection has been poor sensitivity when compared with piezoelectric detection. In this paper, we explore a different form of optical detection demonstrating improved sensitivity and offering a potentially simple method for constructing two-dimensional arrays. Results from a simple experiment using an etalon sensor confirm that the sensitivity of etalon detection is comparable with piezoelectric detection. This paper concludes with a proposal for a high frequency optoacoustic array system using an etalon.     

Directional laser generation and detection of ultrasound with arrays of optical fibers

Some aspects of the generation and detection of ultrasound with laser beams are presented. The objective of the study is (1) to present some experimental results on the generation of ultrasound with an array of optical fibers, (2) to discuss the possibility of generating directional surface waves with acousto-optic scanning in a very narrow frequency band, thus increasing the signal-to-noise ratio, and (3) to discuss the feasibility of the directional detection of ultrasound by using an array of optical fibers as a receiver, also with the goal of increasing the signal-to-noise ratio.     

High frequency piezoelectric MEMS ultrasound transducers

High-frequency ultrasound array transducers using piezoelectric thin films on larger structures are being developed for high-resolution imaging systems. The increase in resolution is achieved by a simultaneous increase in operating frequency (30 MHz to about 1 GHz) and close coupling of the electronic circuitry. Two different processing methods were explored to fabricate array transducers. In one implementation, a xylophone bar transducer was prototyped, using thin film PbZr(0.52)Ti(0.48)O(3) (PZT) as the active piezoelectric layer. In the other, the piezoelectric transducer was prepared by mist deposition of PZT films over electroplated Ni posts. Because the PZT films are excited through the film thickness, the drive voltages of these transducers are low, and close coupling of the electronic circuitry is possible. A complementary metal-oxidesemiconductor (CMOS) transceiver chip for a 16-element array was fabricated in 0.35-microm process technology. The ultrasound front-end chip contains beam-forming electronics, receiver circuitry, and analog-to-digital converters with 3-Kbyte on-chip buffer memory.     

Integration of 2D CMUT arrays with front-end electronics for volumetric ultrasound imaging

For three-dimensional (3D) ultrasound imaging, connecting elements of a two-dimensional (2D) transducer array to the imaging system's front-end electronics is a challenge because of the large number of array elements and the small element size. To compactly connect the transducer array with electronics, we flip-chip bond a 2D 16 x 16-element capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducer (CMUT) array to a custom-designed integrated circuit (IC). Through-wafer interconnects are used to connect the CMUT elements on the top side of the array with flip-chip bond pads on the back side. The IC provides a 25-V pulser and a transimpedance preamplifier to each element of the array. For each of three characterized devices, the element yield is excellent (99 to 100% of the elements are functional). Center frequencies range from 2.6 MHz to 5.1 MHz. For pulse echo operation, the average - 6-dB fractional bandwidth is as high as 125%. Transmit pressures normalized to the face of the transducer are as high as 339 kPa and input-referred receiver noise is typically 1.2 to 2.1 mPa/pHz. The flip-chip bonded devices were used to acquire 3D synthetic aperture images of a wire-target phantom. Combining the transducer array and IC, as shown in this paper, allows for better utilization of large arrays, improves receive sensitivity, and may lead to new imaging techniques that depend on transducer arrays that are closely coupled to IC electronics.     

High-resolution coregistered intravascular imaging with integrated ultrasound and optical coherence tomography probe

We report an integrated ultrasound (US) and optical coherence tomography (OCT) probe and system for intravascular imaging. The dual-function probe is based on a 50 MHz focused ring US transducer, with a centric hole for mounting OCT probe. The coaxial US and light beams are steered by a 45° mirror to enable coregistered US∕OCT imaging simultaneously. Lateral resolution of US is improved due to focused ultrasonic beam. Mirror effects on US were investigated and invitro imaging of a rabbit aorta has been carried out. The combined US-OCT system demonstrated high resolution in visualizing superficial arterial structures while retaining deep penetration of ultrasonic imaging.     

High frequency performance of individual and arrays of single-walled carbon nanotubes

We have studied the high frequency performance limits of single-walled carbon nanotube (SWNT) transistors in the diffusive transport regime limited by the acoustic phonon scattering. The relativistic band structure of single-walled carbon nanotubes combined with the acoustic phonon scattering provides an analytical model for the charge transport of the radio frequency transistors. We were able to obtain the intrinsic high frequency performance such as the cut-off frequency and the linearity of the SWNT transistors. We have extended our model to include transistors based on arrays of SWNTs. The effect of electrostatic screening in a dense array of SWNTs on the cut-off frequency is studied.     

用于血管内超声成像的高频换能器研制

血管内超声(Intravascular Ultrasound,IVUS)成像技术可以精确评估血管腔口径、血管壁形态和其他相关血流和血管特性,在冠状动脉疾病的诊断、治疗指导和治疗后的评估中发挥着重要作用。文章设计并制备了一种用于血管内超声成像的高频超声换能器,并对换能器的电学和声学性能进行测试和表征。结果表明,所制备IVUS换能器的中心频率为38.9 MHz,-6 dB相对带宽为56.6%,在谐振频率42.3 MHz处的电阻抗为22.6Ω,在反谐振频率48.2MHz处的电阻抗为56.5Ω,有效机电耦合系数为0.48。使用该换能器进行线仿体成像实验的结果显示,换能器的纵向分辨率为54μm,横向分辨率为209μm。最后,将文中制备的超声换能器与国外同类型换能器进行比较,结果表明,该换能器的性能良好,能够满足血管内超声临床检测需求,未来有望能够突破技术瓶颈,实现国产替代。     

Free-space optical interconnections with liquid-crystal microprism arrays

Liquid-crystal microprism arrays are shown to be useful for providing electrically controlled alignment of optical beams and fixed various free-space optical interconnections. They can deflect closely spaced micro-optical beams individually to any position with high transmittance (95%), high deflection angle (~10°), and low voltage (<2.8 V(rms)). Various fixed optical interconnections can be made simply by changes in the voltages applied to the microprism.     

Fabrication and characterization of transducer elements in two-dimensional arrays for medical ultrasound imaging

Some of the problems of developing a two-dimensional (2-D) transducer array for medical imaging are examined. The fabrication of a 2-D array material consisting of lead zirconate titanate (PZT) elements separated by epoxy is discussed. Ultrasound pulses and transmitted radiation patterns from individual elements in the arrays are measured. A diffraction theory for the continuous wave pressure field of a 2-D array element is generalized to include both electrical and acoustical cross-coupling between elements. This theory can be fit to model the measured radiation patterns of 2-D array elements, giving an indication of the level of cross-coupling in the array, and the velocity of the acoustic cross-coupling wave. Improvements in bandwidth and cross-coupling resulting from the inclusion of a front acoustic matching layer are demonstrated, and the effects of including a lossy backing material on the array are discussed. A broadband electrical matching network is described, and pulse-echo waveforms and insertion loss from a 2-D array element are measured.     

Treatment planning for hyperthermia with ultrasound phased arrays

Treatment planning for ultrasound phased arrays suggests a strategy for hyperthermia therapy which satisfies therapeutic conditions at the target and spares other sensitive anatomical structures. To predict both desirable and harmful interactions between ultrasound and important structures such as the tumor, bones, and air pockets, a hyperthermia treatment planning system has been developed for ultrasound phased arrays. This collection of treatment planning routines consists of geometric and thermal optimization procedures specific to ultrasound phased arrays, where geometric treatment planning, combined with thermal treatment planning and three-dimensional visualization, provides essential information for the optimization of individual patient treatments. A patient image data set for cancer of the prostate, a difficult target situated in the midst of multiple pelvic bone obstructions, illustrates the geometric treatment planning algorithm and other tools for treatment analysis. The results indicate that the analysis of complex three-dimensional relationships between the applicator, anatomical structures, and incident fields provides an important means of predicting treatment limiting conditions, thereby allowing the hyperthermia applicator to electronically adapt to individual patients and specific sites     

编码发射技术在医学高频超声成像中的研究进展

高频超声成像以其高分辨和实时性好等优势成为近年来医学超声成像领域研究的热点。但由于超声的衰减随频率增加呈指数级升高,导致高频超声信号幅值小,图像信噪比低。为了增强高频超声成像的信噪比,近年来编码发射（又称编码激励）技术得到了越来越多的研究和应用。文章对近几年国内外编码发射技术在医学高频超声成像方面的应用和研究进展进行了综述,重点分析了Chirp码、巴克（Barker）码和格雷（Golay）码3种主要编码发射技术在高频超声成像方面应用的优缺点,并综合对比了各种编码发射技术在高频成像方面的应用前景。     

Controllable optical trap arrays

A method of generating 3D optical trap arrays (OTAs) using a uniaxial crystal has been proposed and implemented. It is shown that the properties of obtained OTAs can be controlled by changing the parameters of the optical system and the state of radiation polarization past the crystal.     

High spatial resolution imaging with near-field scanning optical microscopy in liquids.

The mechanism of tuning fork-based shear-force near-field scanning optical microscopy is investigated to determine optimal experimental conditions for imaging soft samples immersed in liquid. High feedback sensitivity and stability are obtained when only the fiber probe, i.e., excluding the tuning fork prongs, is immersed in solution, which also avoids electrical shorting in conductive (i.e., buffer) solutions. Images of MEH-PPV were obtained with comparable spatial resolution in both air and water. High optical resolution (approximately160 nm fwhm) was observed.     

High frequency nonlinear B-scan imaging of microbubble contrast agents

It was previously shown that it is possible to produce nonlinear scattering from microbubble contrast agents using transmit frequencies in the 14-32 MHz range, suggesting the possibility of performing high-frequency, nonlinear microbubble imaging. In this study, we describe the development of nonlinear microbubble B-scan imaging instrumentation capable of operating at transmit center frequencies between 10 and 50 MHz. The system underwent validation experiments using transmit frequencies of 20 and 30 MHz. Agent characterization experiments demonstrate the presence of nonlinear scattering for the conditions used in this study. Using wall-less vessel phantoms, nonlinear B-scan imaging is performed using energy in one of the subharmonic, ultraharmonic, and second harmonic frequency regions for transmit frequencies of 20 and 30 MHz. Both subharmonic and ultraharmonic imaging modes achieved suppression of tissue signals to below the noise floor while achieving contrast to noise ratios of up to 26 and 17 dB, respectively. The performance of second harmonic imaging was compromised by nonlinear propagation and offered no significant contrast improvement over fundamental mode imaging. In vivo experiments using the subharmonic of a 20 MHz transmit pulse show the successful detection of microvessels in the rabbit ear and in the mouse heart. The results of this study demonstrate the feasibility of nonlinear microbubble imaging at high frequencies