Polycyclic musk fragrances in different environmental compartments in Berlin (Germany)

The aim of this study was to obtain data about the contamination of different environmental compartments (102 surface water samples, 59 sediment samples and 165 eel samples) by polycyclic musks (HHCB, AHTN, ADBI, AHMI, and ATII) within the framework of an exposure monitoring program. Results for HHCB (Galaxolide) gave the following mean values in areas strongly polluted with sewage: surface water 1.59 micrograms l-1; sediment 0.92 mg kg-1 d.w. and eel 1513 micrograms kg-1 f.w. (in the edible portion) (6471 micrograms kg-1 lipid). The following average concentrations were found in waters hardly contaminated with sewage: surface water 0.07 microgram l-1, sediment < 0.02 mg kg-1 and eel 52 micrograms kg-1 f.w. (445 micrograms kg-1 lipid). Mean concentrations of 6.85 micrograms l-1 (maximum: 13.3 micrograms/l) could be measured at sewage treatment plants' outlets. It could be shown that these polycyclics are highly suited to use as indicators of the degree of contamination of waters with organic substances originating from sewage. A mean bioconcentration factor (BCF) on wet weight of 862 (HHCB) and 1069 (AHTN) for the transfer from water to eel under natural conditions could be calculated. The corresponding BCF-values based on the lipid content of eel were 3504 (HHCB) and 5017 (AHTN).     

Survey of lead, cadmium, cobalt and nickel in infant formulas and evaporated milks and estimation of dietary intakes of the elements by infants 0-12 months old

Lead, cadmium, cobalt and nickel were determined in 282 infant formulas and evaporated milks using a graphite-furnace atomic absorption coprecipitation method capable of determining background levels in all samples. On an "as sold" basis, lead in ready-to-use (RTU), concentrated liquid, and powder formulas averaged 1.6, 3.7 and 12.6 ng g-1, respectively. Evaporated (evap.) milks in lead-free and lead-soldered cans contained 2.8 and 95 ng g-1, respectively. Average concentrations of cadmium, cobalt and nickel in evap. milk, milk-based RTU formulas and soy-based RTU formulas were: Cd, 0.38, 0.35 and 3.39 ng g-1; Co, 0.89, 0.46 and 2.79 ng g-1; and Ni, 4.7, 6.0 and 63.7 ng g-1, respectively. In milk-based formulas, cobalt and nickel concentrations were statistically higher in those fortified with iron. Dietary intakes of lead, cadmium, cobalt and nickel by 0-12-month-old infants from food and water used to dilute concentrated foods averaged 1.81 micrograms per kilogram body weight per day (micrograms kg-1 day-1) (13.2 micrograms day-1), 0.44 micrograms kg-1 day-1 (3.5 micrograms day-1), 0.52 micrograms kg-1 day-1 (3.93 micrograms day-1), and 5.0 micrograms kg-1 day-1 (38.2 micrograms day-1), respectively. Lead and cadmium intakes were below the respective FAO/WHO provisional tolerable daily intakes (PTDI) of 3.6 and 0.96-1.2 micrograms kg-1 day-1, except the lead intake of 6 micrograms kg-1 day-1 by infants fed evap. milk stored in lead-soldered cans.     

Rainfall-induced sediment and pesticide input from orchards into the Lourens River, Western Cape, South Africa: importance of a single event

Rainfall-induced runoff transported sediments and pesticides into the Lourens River and its tributaries during a 28.8-mm rainstorm in mid-December 1998. Average 1-h peak levels of current-use insecticides applied to adjacent orchard plots were 1.5 micrograms l-1 azinphos-methyl, 0.2 microgram l-1 chlorpyrifos and 2.9 micrograms l-1 total endosulfan (alpha, beta, S) in the river itself. Respective average 1-h pesticide levels associated with suspended particles were 1247, 924 and 12,082 micrograms kg-1, along with 980 micrograms kg-1 of prothiofos. Total suspended solids increased during runoff from 32 to 520 mg l-1. The contaminated edge-of-field runoff entered the river via the tributaries directly bordering the orchard-growing areas. Increased concentrations of azinphos-methyl and prothiofos associated with suspended sediments were demonstrated to persist for about 3.5 months without any further input in one of the tributaries. This illustrates that the short-term exposure has the potential to result in long-term contamination of surface waters. In terms of chemical load during the 1-h peak discharge period, the single rainfall event caused a loss of 173 g h-1 azinphosmethyl, 55 g h-1 chlorpyrifos, 740 g h-1 total endosulfan (alpha, beta, S) and 41 g h-1 prothiofos. Levels of contamination were extremely high; they exceed the national water quality standards and those established by the US EPA. A comparison with standard toxicity data and 24-h LC50 s for the local amphipod species Paramelita nigroculus, obtained during this study, indicates that the concentrations found in the river may result in acute toxic effects on aquatic invertebrates and fishes. A probability analysis of 10-y rainfall data revealed that the frequency of a similar storm event occurring within the main spraying season is 1.7 y-1.     

Trace elements in hair: a study of residents in Darjeeling (India) and San Diego, California (U.S.A)

Trace element contents of scalp hair from randomly selected, ethnically homogeneous subjects of Darjeeling (India) were compared with those of the residents of San Diego, California (U.S.A.). The differences between mean concentrations of Ca, Mg, Cu, Na and Cd in the two groups were not significant, and the concentrations of K, Fe, Mn and Zn were significantly higher (P less than 0.01), and that of Al was significantly lower (P less than 0.01), in hair of the residents of Darjeeling. Concentrations of lead in four of the Darjeeling hair samples were very high (greater than 30 micrograms g-1) and in the remaining samples the mean concentration was similar to San diego hair samples. In two mentally retarded Darjeeling subjects, abnormally high values of aluminum (50 and 70 micrograms g-1) and iron (155 and 196 micrograms g-1) were observed. The mean aluminum concentration (2.4 micrograms g-1) in the remaining Darjeeling hair samples was significantly lower than the mean aluminum concentration (10.6 micrograms g-1) in the San Diego hair samples (P less than 0.01). The mean manganese concentration in Darjeeling hair was 20 times higher than the mean manganese content in San Diego hair samples.     

Organochlorines in Greenland marine fish, mussels and sediments

Shorthorn sculpin (Myoxocephalus scorpius), polar cod (Boreogadus saida), blue mussels (Mytilus edulis) and sediments were sampled in Greenland 1994-1995 at three locations at the west coast and one at the east coast. Fish liver, mussel soft tissue and sediments were analysed for PCBs (10 congeners), DDTs (pp,'), HCHs (alpha, beta, gamma), HCB and trans-nonachlor. The overall geometric mean concentrations found for PCBs were 17 micrograms kg-1 wet wt. in shorthorn sculpin liver, 33 micrograms kg-1 wet wt. in polar cod liver, and 0.86 microgram kg-1 wet wt. in blue mussels. For the three species, the geometric mean concentrations for DDTs were 11, 36, and 0.39 micrograms kg-1 wet wt., respectively; for HCHs: 8.7, 32 and 0.56 micrograms kg-1 wet wt., respectively; for HCB: 4.2, 11 and 0.06 micrograms kg-1 wet wt., respectively; and for trans-nonachlor: 6.3, 19 and 0.16 microgram kg-1 wet wt., respectively. All organochlorines in the sediment samples were below the detection limit of 0.1 microgram kg-1 dry weight. For sculpins and mussels, most organochlorine compounds were found to increase with increasing lipid content. The weight of mussels did not influence organochlorine concentrations, whereas organochlorine content in general increased with fish length of sculpins. The concentrations were found to be comparable to levels in other Arctic regions, but orders of magnitude lower than levels found in the southern part of the North Sea. Organochlorine concentrations in sculpins showed a decreasing trend following the ocean current flowing from north to south at the east coast and from south towards north at the west coast of Greenland. The proportion of higher chlorinated PCBs (Cl atoms > or = 6) in sculpin liver followed the decreasing trend of PCB concentrations.     

Acidic deposition and human exposure to toxic metals

Acid precipitation affects the solubility of several metals in aquatic systems and in soil. Cadmium levels in tap water samples from geological areas having low resistance to acidic pollution were significantly higher than those in samples from a neighbouring reference area where there was a different geological structure. The median cadmium levels and pH values were 0.14 microgram l-1 and 5.6 respectively, for the acidic areas compared with 0.07 microgram l-1 and 6.4 respectively for the reference area. Further, there was a significant inverse relationship between both cadmium and lead contents and the pH values of the samples. The mobility of the metals was thus dependent on the acidity. The blood lead levels in 195 subjects from the acidic areas were lower than those in 91 subjects from the reference area (medians 60 vs. 70 micrograms l-1); no significant differences were found in blood cadmium or blood mercury levels. Subjects in the acidic areas had lower plasma selenium levels than those from the reference area (medians 85 vs. 90 micrograms l-1); the difference was mainly attributed to subjects with private wells. The data may indicate a negative effect of the acidic pollution on selenium intake via water and/or foods. There was also a positive relationship between intake of fish on the one hand and blood mercury and plasma selenium on the other, which is in accordance with the role of fish as a source of these metals.     

European hospitals as a source for platinum in the environment in comparison with other sources

The concentration of platinum in the sewage of five European hospitals originating from excreted antineoplastic drugs, cisplatin and carboplatin, was analyzed in a short term study to provide an order of magnitude of Pt emissions from hospitals into aquatic environments. These emissions were compared with a rough estimation of emissions by cars. The average daily concentrations in the hospital effluents were approximately < 10-601 ng l-1 Pt (20-3580 ng l-1 in 2-h mixed samples). As expected from consumption data, the daily average concentrations should range from < 10-710 ng l-1 Pt. Platinum emitted by hospitals is 3.3-12.3% (1.3-14.3 kg per year) the estimated amount emitted by cars equipped with catalytic converters in the different European countries. Compared to platinum emissions from other sources, the effluents of hospitals are a minor source of platinum in municipal sewage, but they should not to be disregarded. Other possible sources for the emission of platinum into the environment should be considered in further investigations.     

TBT in marine sediments and blue mussels (Mytilus edulis) from central-west Greenland

Concentrations of butyltin compounds were investigated in the bivalve Mytilus edulis (five sites) and marine sediments (three sites) near the largest town, Nuuk, in Greenland. In seven of the eight samples the extremely toxic compound tributyltin (TBT) was detected. The concentrations of tributyltin and degradation products in the bivalves were close to 1 microgram kg-1 wet weight (ww), calculated as Sn, which is lower than those found in Iceland and the Faeroe Islands. In sediments the concentration of TBT ranged from below the limit of detection of 1 microgram kg-1 to 171 micrograms kg-1 dry weight (dw), calculated as Sn, which is comparable to levels found in Europe.     

Sweat lead levels in persons with high blood lead levels: lead in sweat of lead workers in the tropics

Samples of blood, sweat and urine were collected from eight control subjects and 19 lead workers in a battery manufacturing factory in the tropics. Sweat samples were collected while workers cycled on a bicycle ergometer at room temperature (27-31 degrees C). All samples were analysed by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Workers with blood lead levels of 13-36 micrograms dl-1 had sweat levels of 72-256 micrograms l-1 and urinary levels of 28-288 micrograms/g creatinine, while controls had levels of 9-12.2 micrograms dl-1, 9-30 micrograms l-1 and 9-19.6 microgram/g creatinine, respectively. Estimations of sweat lead in lead workers can be masked by skin contamination.     

The impact of the banning of tributyltin-based antifouling paints on the Sydney rock oyster, Saccostrea commercialis.

Two years after the banning in New South Wales (Australia) of tributyltin (TBT)-based antifouling paints for vessels under 25 metres in length, the impact on the Sydney rock oyster, Saccostrea commercialis, has been assessed. Reduced growth and shell deformities present before banning were found to be absent and healthy oysters contained TBT at concentrations close to the detection limit of 0.2 micrograms Sn kg-1. High tissue concentrations of both copper and zinc, prior to banning were also significantly reduced. This behaviour was predicted by field experiments which showed that TBT had a synergistic effect on the uptake of copper. The distribution of both TBT and copper in the various organs of the oyster were examined in an attempt to explain this synergism.     

Anthropogenic platinum group element (Pt, Pd and Rh) concentrations in road dusts and roadside soils from Perth, Western Australia

The emission of platinum group elements (PGE) from automobile catalytic converters has led to rapid increases in Pt, Pd and Rh concentrations in roadside media. This article represents the first detailed study to assess PGE levels in road dusts and roadside soils in Australia. Road dust and roadside soil samples were analysed by ICP-MS following microwave digestion and cation exchange. All samples show elevation of PGE above average upper crust values, with maximum values of 420 ng g(-1) Pt, 440 ng g(-1) Pd and 91 ng g(-1) Rh. PGE ratios in road dusts and soils are consistent with known catalytic converter compositions and while Pt and Rh abundances are comparable with European studies, Pd levels are substantially higher in Australian samples. PGE in these samples are not correlated with Pb, though positive correlations with Ce, Cu and Y are evident. No straightforward relationship between traffic volume and PGE abundance is evident and factors such as driving style, topography, road drainage and potentially climate exert considerable influences.     

Insecticide residues in total diet samples in Punjab, India

Total diet samples, collected every 3 months during a period of 1 year, were analysed for DDT and BHC residues. The food items were purchased from retailers, prepared for eating according to local practices and divided into several food groups. The results show that average dietary exposure to DDT and BHC residues was, respectively, 239 (range: 124-288) and 125 (range: 68-268) micrograms person-1 day-1 for vegetarians, and 225 (range: 138-263) and 134 (range: 63-280) micrograms person-1 day-1 for non-vegetarians. These dietary intake values are much higher than those reported from developed countries. Fatty food groups (milk and milk products, oils and fats, meat and eggs or cheese) were responsible for approximately 85% of the total DDT intake, while BHC residues were distributed more evenly in various food groups. The observed DDT intake is close to its acceptable daily intake (ADI) of 300 micrograms person-1 day-1 for a man weighing 60 kg. No ADI value for BHC residues is available.     

Development of anaerobic migrating blanket reactor (AMBR), a novel anaerobic treatment system

A novel anaerobic treatment system, the anaerobic migrating blanket reactor (AMBR), was developed after completing a parallel study with upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) and anaerobic sequencing batch reactor (ASBR) processes. Using sucrose as the main component of a synthetic wastewater, the AMBR achieved a maximum chemical oxygen demand (COD) loading rate of 30 g.l-1.day-1 at a 12-h hydraulic retention time (HRT). This resulted in a standard methane production rate (SMPR) of 6.51.l-1.day-1 and an average methane-based COD (MCOD) removal efficiency of 62.2%. A key element in granular biomass formation was migration of the biomass blanket through the reactor. Although a carbohydrate-rich wastewater was used, no separate pre-acidification was required for the AMBR, because of high mixing intensities and wash out of acidogenic bacteria. In contrast, the absence of pre-acidification created "bulking" problems (caused by abundant acidogenic bacteria at the surface of granules) in a UASB reactor, operated under conditions similar to that of the AMBR. As a result, a maximum COD loading rate and SMPR of 21 g.l-1.day-1 and 4.91.l-1.day-1 were achieved, respectively, for the UASB reactor at a 12-h HRT. These values were 18 g.l-1.day-1 and 3.71.l-1.day-1, respectively, for an ASBR at a 12-h HRT. Hence, the performance of the AMBR in treating a carbohydrate-rich wastewater was found to be superior in terms of maximum loading rate and SMPR.     

Iodine-131 and other radionuclides in environmental samples collected from Ibaraki/Japan after the Chernobyl accident

Measurements were made of 131I, 137Cs, 134Cs and 103Ru in environmental samples collected from Ibaraki-Prefecture, Japan, after the Chernobyl accident. The highest values of 131I obtained in May 1986 were 98 Bq l-1 (2.7 nCi l-1) for rain water (collected at the beginning of the rainfall), 400 Bq kg-1 (11 nCi kg-1) for pine needles (wet), 160 Bq kg-1 (4.3 nCi kg-1) for vegetables (wet) and 52 Bq kg-1 (1.4 nCi kg-1) for seaweed (wet). Most of the radioiodine in rain water was present as IO3- and I-. The proportion of IO3- in fresh rain water was higher than that of I-, but the IO3- was converted to I- during storage. About 10% of 131I was removed from leaf vegetables by washing, and about 70% by boiling.     

Tentative reference values for gold, silver and platinum: literature data analysis.

Data available on biologic fluid content of therapeutic metals are uneven for silver, gold and platinum respectively. Tentative reference values may be proposed on the basis of the most representative studies for silver and gold. For silver it is suggested that the variability in normal subjects could range up to 10 micrograms/l in whole blood and up to 1 microgram/l in urine. For gold 0.5 microgram/l can be considered the upper limit for both whole blood and urine. For platinum there is no indication that concentration in either blood or urine could reach detectable amounts in normal subjects.     

Contamination of vinyl chloride in shallow urban rivers in Osaka, Japan

Vinyl chloride (VC) contamination had taken place in heavily polluted shallow rivers (Taishogawa and lower Hiranogawa Rivers) in Osaka, Japan. VC concentrations ranged from below detection limit to 55.6 micrograms l-1 (mean: 3.35 micrograms l-1, standard deviation: 5.96 micrograms l-1). Of 55 volatile organic compounds (VOCs) analyzed, concentrations of cis-1,2-dichloroethene (c-DCE), tetrachloroethene (PCE) and trichloroethene (TCE) were significantly correlated to VC concentrations in the rivers, indicating that they share common sources. The four VOCs were invariably present at approximate relative ratios of about 1:2.7:1.5:0.31 (VC: c-DCE: PCE: TCE). The similarity between sampling dates in the distribution pattern of the four VOCs concentrations were observed, but their concentrations were different between the dates. The concentrations of the four VOCs decreased with distance down the river. A sample from the upper Taishogawa River in July 1997 had 55.6 micrograms l-1 of VC, 152 micrograms l-1 of c-DCE, 86.2 micrograms l-1 of PCE and 18.4 micrograms l-1 of TCE, respectively. These values are about an order of magnitude higher than the other sites over the study period and are likely indicative of point source inputs.     

Dimethylquecksilber (I) untersuchungen über die verteilung und ausscheidung in ratten

Investigations on the distribution and the excretion of mercury in rats after oral intake of dimethyl mercury have been performed. The findings are compared with the results obtained with monomethyl mercury by other authors. Besides a very high concentration of mercury in the blood of the treated animals the greatest accumulation of mercury in hair as well in the kidney, the spleen and the liver has been found. Much less mercury has been detected in samples of CNS. However, observations during a period of 21 days indicate that in samples of CNS the decline of Hg is less rapid than in other tissues. The excretion of mercury by urine and faeces are of the same order of magnitude as in the case of monomethyl mercury.     

Exposure of man to environmental aluminium--an exposure commitment assessment

Aluminium is one of the most abundant elements in the environment and is released from both natural and anthropogenic sources. Representative values of aluminium concentrations in the background environment and in man are selected from available data and a pathway analysis is performed utilising the exposure commitment method. Using a derived estimate of the body burden (60 mg), a representative value for dietary intake (20 mg day-1) and fractional absorption of 0.01, a mean retention time of A1 in the body of 300 days is obtained. This corresponds to a biological half-time of 210 days. The assessment indicates that an average dietary intake rate of 20 mg day-1 contributes 660 micrograms kg-1 of aluminium to the body, while inhalation of aluminium in air makes, in comparison, a negligible contribution to the body content.     

Assessment of metal pollution in Onsan Bay, Korea using Asian periwinkle Littorina brevicula as a biomonitor.

Cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) concentrations in the marine gastropod, Littorina brevicula Philippi, were determined to assess the metal pollution in Onsan Bay, Korea. Samples of L. brevicula employed as a biomonitor and seawater were collected from 12 to 20 stations of Onsan Bay in November 1997, respectively. Dissolved metal concentrations in surface seawater were highest at the station near Onsan Non-ferrous Industrial Complex: 1.15 micrograms l-1 for Cd, 2.49 micrograms l-1 for Pb, 3.75 micrograms l-1 for Cu and 23.98 micrograms l-1 for Zn. These values were 1-2 orders higher than those shown at outer regions of the Bay. Metal concentrations in the soft body of periwinkles were highly variable at different sampling locations: 0.48-27.11 micrograms g-1 for Cd, 1.41-24.91 micrograms g-1 for Pb, 57-664 micrograms g-1 for Cu and 83-246 micrograms g-1 for Zn. The values from stations near the industrial complex were higher than those expected from relationships between body sizes and metal body burdens in periwinkles collected from the whole Korean coast. Spatial distribution of metal concentrations in the periwinkle and seawater indicated that Onsan industrial complex near the Bay is the input source of these metals. Especially, Cd and Pb concentrations in the periwinkle and seawater were distinctly decreased with distance from the Onsan industrial complex. Non-essential metals such as Cd and Pb in the periwinkle showed a strong correlation with dissolved metal concentrations in seawater. Conversely, essential Cu and Zn in the periwinkle were hardly explained by those in seawater, except at the most contaminated sites.     

Bioavailability of fine dispersed platinum as emitted from automotive catalytic converters: a model study.

Automobile exhaust catalytic converters emit fine dispersed elemental platinum, Pt (0), in the nanometer range coated on larger aluminium oxide carrier particles. A pre-requisite for a potential systemic toxic effect of the emitted platinum is its bioavailability which was investigated using laboratory animals. To this end, a model substance was synthesised which consisted of aluminium oxide particles < or = 5 microns onto which platinum particles > or = 4 nm were deposited by a calcination process. These particles closely resemble those emitted from automobile exhaust converters. This model substance was applied to female Lewis rats in two doses by intratracheal instillation; the animals were killed after 1, 7, 28 and 90 days. In addition, the model substance was also applied during a 90-day inhalation study. After microwave digestion of the tissues, the platinum was determined in all organs and body fluids by inductively coupled plasma/mass spectrometry (ICP/MS). Platinum was found in the blood, urine and faeces and all important organs (liver, spleen, kidneys, adrenals, stomach, femur). Based on the platinum content determined in the body fluids and all organs (except the lung and the faeces) it was calculated that up to 16% of the platinum was retained in the lung 1 day after intratracheal instillation and up to 30% of the fine dispersed platinum deposited on an average during 90 days inhalation in the lung was bioavailable. Using size exclusion chromatography (SEC) in combination with ICP/MS, it was shown that > or = 90% of the bioavailable platinum was bound to high molecular weight compounds (approximately 80-800 kDa), most likely proteins.